NON CONVENTOINAL ENERGY SOURCES

Solar Energy

Solar energy does have the potential to supply all energy

needs: electric, thermal, process and chemical, and even transportation
fuels. It is, however, very diffuse, cyclic, and often undependable. It
therefore needs system and components that can gather and concentrate
it efficiently for conversion to any of these uses and that can do the
conversion as efficiently as possible
Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
 The total quantity of solar energy incident upon the earth is immense, but
the energy is very diffuse and, because of the earth’s rotation and orbit
around the sun, cyclic both daily and seasonally.
 It also suffers from atmospheric interference from clouds, particulate
matter, gases, etc.
 Solar energy incident on earth, outside of its atmosphere is called
extraterrestrial radiation.
 Extraterrestrial solar radiation intensity called solar constant S = 1353
kW/m2.
Terrestrial Solar Radiation
 The solar energy falling on earth’s surface is called terrestrial radiation.
 The extraterrestrial radiation is said to be reduced by two mechanisms
before it reaches earth’s surface viz., scattering and absorption.
 Scattering is a mechanism by which part of a radiation beam is scattered
laterally and is, therefore reduced by air molecules, water vapor, and the
dust in the atmosphere.
 Absorption of solar radiation in the atmosphere is mainly by ozone O3,
water vapor, and carbon dioxide. X-ray and other very short wavelength
radiations of the sun are absorbed high in ionosphere by N2, O2 and other
components. (contd…)
 The available terrestrial solar energy at a given time and place is influenced
not only by time of day or year, location, and scattering but also by
cloudiness. All effects may be combined in one factor called clearness
index Ci. The extraterrestrial solar radiation multiplied by clearness index
gives the solar radiation falling on particular location.
 Ci varies widely from near 30 to as high as70 percent in some localities.
Solar-Electric Conversion Systems

 Solar energy may be converted to electricity by two means

i) Solar thermal conversion ii) Photovoltaic conversion

Solar thermal conversion
 By this method solar radiation is converted to heat that in turn is added to a
thermodynamic cycle to produce mechanical work and electricity. For this to
be efficient and hence economical, it is necessary to collect and concentrate
the diffuse solar radiation in an efficient manner to arrive at a reasonably
high temperature heat source. The collectors gather the sun’s energy and
direct it onto receivers which contain the working fluid. According to the
type of receiver employed, there are three solar-thermal conversion systems.
i) Central receiver systems ii) Dispersed or Distributed receivers
iii) Solar ponds
Solar- Thermal Central receiver Systems
 The central receiver uses a large field of reflecting mirrors called heliostats
that redirect the sun’s energy and concentrate it on a central receiver
mounted on top of a tower.
 The heliostats are individually guided, since they cover a large field, so that
each focuses the sun’s energy it receives mounted on a central receiver at all
hours of sunlight.
 In the receiver the concentrated solar energy is absorbed by a circulating
fluid that transports the heat to the steam cycle.
 The system should incorporate storage for nighttime and cloudy periods, as
shown in figure.
 The receiver output is made greater than that required by the steam cycle,
and the excess output during periods of greatest solar incidence is bypassed
to a thermal storage system. (contd…..)
 During periods of low or no solar incidence, the feedwater is shunted to the
storage system, instead of to the receiver, where it vaporizes for use in
turbine.
Solar-thermal central receiver power plant
Distributed Solar-Thermal Systems
 Another approach to solar-thermal-energy conversion is the distributed or
dispersed solar-thermal system.
 Rather than hundreds of heliostats focusing solar energy on a single distant
receiver atop a tall tower, this system is characterized by the use of a large
collectors, each focusing the solar energy it receives directly on its own
receiver to heat locally a heat-transport fluid. The fluid is combined with
those from other collectors for thermal-electric conversion.
 Distributed systems are of two kinds: point focus and line focus.
 The point focus system generally uses collectors which are in the form of a
mirrored parabolic dish that tracks the sun but focuses the captured energy
on a receiver mounted at the focal point of the parabola. (contd….)
 The line focus system, also called the trough system, uses collectors in the
form of long troughs of cylindrical or parabolic cross sections, which are
lined with mirrors to collect and concentrate sun’s radiation onto a focal
linear conduit through which primary coolant flows.
 Because of their geometry, such troughs are usually made to track the sun in
only one plane, by being rotated about their focal line. Thus other than solar
noon, they receive sun’s rays that get more inclined with respect to their
projected surface as the sun deviates from solar noon.
 They, therefore, usually operate in the lower temperature ranges of 200 to
6000 F (about 90 to 3150 C).
Line Focus System

Point Focus System

Solar Pond
Solar Ponds
 Large bodies of water, such as lakes, receive vast quantities of solar radiation
because of their large areas.
 When solar energy is received and absorbed below the surface, the warmer
water becomes less dense and rise to top. The result is a convective circulation
that keeps cooler water at the bottom and warmer water at top.
 Some salt natural lakes have exhibited the opposite behavior namely, the
temperature gradient is reversed with warmer water at the bottom and cooler
water at top.
 This phenomenon takes place because these lakes contain a nonuniform vertical
concentration of salts with greater concentration at the bottom than at the top.
 This causes the bottom water to have a greater density and to remain at the
bottom, even though it may be hotter. (contd….)
 The solar energy absorbed in deep layers is effectively trapped there because
the effect of salt on density offsets the effect of thermal expansion.
 Solar ponds takes advantage of this phenomena in two ways (1) the
conversion of solar energy to useful work as a result of temperature between
bottom and top and (2) the use of pond as thermal storage medium.
 A solar pond is, therefore, in effect, a combined solar collector and storage
medium.
Solar Pond
 Figure shows schematic of an artificial solar pond and conversion system.
The bottom warm water is used as the heat source for the power plant, the
top cool water as the heat sink.
 The hot bottom water is pumped to an evaporator where it exchanges heat
with working fluid and then comes back to the bottom of the pond. After
exchanging heat in the evaporator, working fluid converts into steam which
drives a turbine.
 The turbine exhaust is condensed in the condenser, and the condensate is fed
back to the evaporator. The condenser cooling water is obtained from the top
cool layer of the pond.
 Because of relatively low temperature differences in solar ponds, the thermal
efficiency is very low when compared to fossil, nuclear power plants.
 Solar ponds, however, have the potential for trapping vast amounts of solar
energy in regions where both solar energy and land are abundant.
Solar Energy Storage
 In solar thermal conversion systems, one challenge facing the widespread use
of solar energy is reduced energy production when the sun sets or is blocked
by clouds. Thermal energy storage provides a workable solution to this
challenge.
 In solar thermal systems, the sun's rays are reflected onto a receiver, which
creates heat that is used to generate electricity. If the receiver contains oil or
molten salt as the heat-transfer medium, then the thermal energy can be
stored for later use.
 Several thermal energy storage technologies have been tested and
implemented since 1985. These include the two-tank direct system, two-tank
indirect system, and single-tank thermocline system.
Two-tank direct system
 Solar thermal energy in this system is stored in the same fluid used to collect
it. The fluid is stored in two tanks, one at high temperature and the other at
low temperature.
 Fluid from the low-temperature tank flows through the solar collector or
receiver, where solar energy heats it to a high temperature, and it then flows
to the high-temperature tank for storage.
 Fluid from the high-temperature tank flows through a heat exchanger, where
it generates steam for electricity production.
 The fluid exits the heat exchanger at a low temperature and returns to the
low-temperature tank.
Two-tank indirect system
 Two-tank indirect systems function in the same way as two-tank direct
systems, except different fluids are used as the heat-transfer and storage fluids.
This system is used in plants in which the heat-transfer fluid is too expensive
or not suited for use as the storage fluid.
 The storage fluid from the low-temperature tank flows through an extra heat
exchanger, where it is heated by the high-temperature heat-transfer fluid. The
high-temperature storage fluid then flows back to the high-temperature storage
tank.
 The fluid exits this heat exchanger at a low temperature and returns to the
solar collector or receiver, where it is heated back to a high temperature.
Storage fluid from the high-temperature tank is used to generate steam in the
same manner as the two-tank direct system. The indirect system requires an
extra heat exchanger, which adds cost to the system.
Single-tank Thermocline system
 Single-tank thermocline systems store thermal energy in a solid medium, most
commonly silica sand.
 At any time during operation, a portion of the medium is at high temperature,
and a portion is at low temperature. The hot- and cold-temperature regions are
separated by a temperature gradient or thermocline.
 High-temperature heat-transfer fluid flows into the top of the thermocline and
exits the bottom at low temperature. This process moves the thermocline
downward and adds thermal energy to the system for storage. Reversing the
flow moves the thermocline upward and removes thermal energy from the
system to generate steam and electricity.
 Using a solid storage medium and only needing one tank reduces the cost of
this system relative to two-tank systems.
Single-Tank Thermocline Systems
 Wind Energy

Wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy since wind is

induced chiefly by the uneven heating of the earth’s crust by the sun.
 Winds are broadly classified as planetary and local winds.
 Planetary winds are caused by greater solar heating of the earth’s surface
near the equator than near the northern or southern poles. This causes warm
tropical air to rise and flow through the upper atmosphere toward the poles
and cold air from the poles to flow back to the equator nearer to the earth’s
surface.
 Local winds are caused by two mechanisms.
 The first is differential heating of land and water. Solar radiation during day
is readily converted to sensible energy of the land surface but is partly
absorbed in layers below the water surface and partly consumed in
evaporating some of the water. Therefore, the land mass becomes more
hotter than the water, which causes the air above land to heat up and become
warmer than the air above water. The warmer lighter air above the land rises,
and the cooler heavier air above water moves in to replace it. (contd….)
 The second mechanism of local winds is caused by hills and mountain
sides. The air above the slopes heat up during the day and cools down at
night more rapidly than the air above the low lands. This causes heated air
during the day to raise along the slopes and relatively cool heavy air to
flow down at night.
 The total power of a wind stream is equal to the rate of the incoming kinetic
energy of that stream KEi, or
Ptot = m KEi = m
Ptot = total power, W
m = mass-flow rate, kg/s
Vi = incoming velocity, m/s
The mass-flow is given by the continuity equation
m = ρAVi
Therefore
Ptot = 1/2(ρAV3)
This equation shows an inherent weakness of all wind mills, the strong
dependence of the power produced on wheel diameter and wind speed, being
proportional to turbine wheel area and proportional to the cube of the wind
velocity. This means that even small fluctuations in wind velocity, which almost
always occur, would result in large fluctuations in power.
Wind turbines (wind mills) according to their axis of rotation can be classified
as
i) Vertical axis and
ii) Horizontal axis
Vertical axis Wind mills:
Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs), have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically.
The main advantage of vertical axis machines is that they operate in all wind
directions and thus need no yaw (horizontal plain movement) adjustments.
This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable or
has turbulent winds.
With a vertical axis, the generator and other primary components can be
placed near the ground, so the tower does not need to support it, also makes
maintenance easier.
VAWTs subtypes:
Darrieus wind turbines are commonly called "Eggbeater" turbines, because
they look like a giant eggbeater.
They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclic stress on
the tower, which contributes to poor reliability.
Also, they generally require some external power source, or an additional
Savonius rotor, to start turning, because the starting torque is very low.
Savonius wind turbines are drag type turbines, they are commonly used in
cases of high reliability in many applications such as ventilation and
anemometers.
Because they are a drag type turbine they are less efficient than the common
horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT). Savonius wind turbines are excellent
in areas of turbulent wind and self starting.
VAWT advantages:
No yaw mechanisms is needed.
A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the
moving parts.
VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.
VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
VAWT disadvantages:
 The main drawback of a VAWT generally create drag when rotating into the
wind.
Most VAWTs have a average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT,
mainly because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into
the wind.
Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower due
and do not take advantage of higher wind speeds above.
Horizontal axis Wind mills:
Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT), has blades that look like a propeller
that spin on the horizontal axis.
Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the top of a tower, and they must be pointed into the wind.
Wind turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed
into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a
considerable distance in front of the tower.
HAWT advantages:
The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In
some wind shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by
20% and the power output by 34%.
High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind,
receiving power through the whole rotation.
HAWT disadvantages:
Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox,
and generator.
Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake
assembly) being lifted into position.
Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the
appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades
toward the wind.
HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop
the turbine from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is primarily, energy from earth’s own

interior. The natural heat in the earth has manifested itself for thousands
of years in the form of volcanoes, lava flows, hot springs and geysers.
 Geothermal energy is the one renewable resource that has practically no
intermittency, has the highest energy density and is economically
comparable to conventional power plants.
 Earth’s crust averages about 32 km in thickness. Below the crust, the
molten mass, called magma, is still in the process of cooling.
 Earth tremors in Cenozoic period caused the magma to come close to the
earth’s surface in certain places and crust fissures to open up.
 The hot magma near the surface thus causes active volcanoes and hot
springs and geysers where water exists. It also causes steam to vent through
fissures.
Geothermal energy systems are of three basic kinds.
i) Hydrothermal systems
ii) Geopressured systems
iii) Petrothermal systems
 Hydrothermal systems are those in which water is heated by contact with the
hot rock.
 Hydrothermal systems are in turn subdivided into 1) vapor-dominated and 2)
liquid-dominated systems.
 In Vapor-dominated systems the water is vaporized into steam that reaches
the surface in a relatively dry condition at about 4000F (2050C) and rarely
above 8 bar.
 This steam is the most suitable for use in turboelectric power plants, with the
least cost.
 It does, however, suffer problems, similar to those encountered by all
geothermal systems, such as, the presence of corrosive gases and erosive
material and environmental problems.
 Vapor-dominated systems, however, are rare, there are only 5 known sites in
the world to date.
 In liquid-dominated systems the water circulating and trapped underground
is at a temperature of 350 to 6000F (174 to 3150C).
 When trapped by wells drilled in the right places and to right depths, the
water flows either naturally to the surface or is pumped up to it.
 The drop in pressure, usually to 8 bar or less, causes it to partially flash to a
two-phase mixture of low quality, i.e., liquid-dominated.
 It contains large relatively concentrations of dissolved solids. Power
production is adversely affected by these solids because they precipitate and
cause scaling in pipes and heat-exchange surfaces, thus reducing flow and
heat transfer.
 liquid-dominated systems, however, are much plentiful than vapor-
dominated systems.
The hydrothermal systems are the only one in commercial operation
today. The next two systems are under study.
 Ocean Energy

Solar energy, creates other forms of energy that can also be

harnessed to generate power. The absorption of seas and oceans of solar
radiation, which causes, like the wind, ocean currents (ocean wave
energy) and moderate temperature gradients (ocean thermal energy
conversion systems), especially in tropical waters.
 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems

 As the seas and oceans of the earth constitute about 70 percent of its
surface area, the total terrestrial solar-energy incidence on them is
immense. This corresponds to an average solar incidence of 676 W/m2.
 Considering deep waters like seas and oceans, the higher temperatures are
at the surface, whereas deep water remains cool.
 In tropics, the ocean surface temperature often exceeds 250C, while 1 km
below the temperature is usually no higher than 100C.
 The concept of ocean thermal energy conversion systems is based on the
utilization of this temperature difference in a heat engine to generate power.
 The maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine operating between two
temperature limits cannot exceed that of a Carnot cycle operating between
same temperature limits.
ɳc = (T1 – T2)/T1
 It is thus important to have a large temperature difference T1 – T2.
 In OETC this may average 200C compared with about 5000C for modern
fossil power plants.
 Therefore Carnot efficiency for OETC would be 6.67%.
 Introduction to Tidal power

The tides are yet another source of energy from the oceans.
The amount of energy available is very large but only in a few parts of world.
Tide energy is somewhat similar to hydro energy in that it uses the potential
energy of water.
This energy can be tapped from coastal waters by building dams that entrap
the water at high tide and release it at low tide back to the sea. Power can then
be obtained by turbines from both in-out flows of the turbine.
The tides, although free, were inconvenient because they come at varying
times from day to day, have varying ranges(heads) and, for large outputs
require large capital expenditures.
The tides are rhythmic but not constant. Their occurrence is due to a
balance of forces, mainly the gravitational force of the moon but also that
of the sun, both acting together with that of the earth to balance the
centrifugal force on the water due to earth’s rotation. The result is the
rhythmic rise and fall of water.
 Fuel Cells

THE INVENTION OF THE FUEL CELL

Sir William Grove invented the first fuel cell in 1839. Grove knew that water
could be split into hydrogen and oxygen by sending an electric current through
it (a process called electrolysis). He hypothesized that by reversing the
procedure you could produce electricity and water. He created a primitive fuel
cell and called it a gas voltaic battery. After experimenting with his new
invention, Grove proved his hypothesis. Fifty years later, scientists Ludwig
Mond and Charles Langer coined the term fuel cell while attempting to build a
practical model to produce electricity.

A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. It converts

chemical energy into electricity.
A fuel cell converts the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the
process it produces electricity. (contd….)
A fuel cell produces a direct current (DC) voltage that can be used to
power motors, lights or any number of electrical appliances.
In the figure below you can see there are four basic elements of a fuel cell.
The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the
electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used
in an external circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen
gas equally over the surface of the catalyst.
The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has channels etched into it that
distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also conducts the
electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can
recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
The electrolyte is the specially treated material, which only conducts
positively charged ions. The electrolyte blocks electrons. (contd…..)
The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and
hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum nanoparticles very thinly coated onto
carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum
surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen.
There are several different types of fuel cells, each using a different chemistry.
Fuel cells are usually classified by their operating temperature and the type
of electrolyte they use.
Polymer exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC): The PEMFC has a high
power density and a relatively low operating temperature (ranging from 60 to
80 degrees Celsius, or 140 to 176 degrees Fahrenheit). The low operating
temperature means that it doesn't take very long for the fuel cell to warm up
and begin generating electricity.
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC): These fuel cells are best suited for large-scale
stationary power generators that could provide electricity for factories or
towns. This type of fuel cell operates at very high temperatures (between 700
and 1,000 degrees Celsius). This high temperature makes reliability a problem,
because parts of the fuel cell can break down after cycling on and off
repeatedly. However, SOFCs are very stable when in continuous use.
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC): This is one of the oldest designs for fuel cells; the
United States space program has used them since the 1960s. The AFC is very
susceptible to contamination, so it requires pure hydrogen and oxygen. It is
also very expensive, so this type of fuel cell is unlikely to be commercialized.
Molten-carbonate fuel cell (MCFC): Like the SOFC, these fuel cells are also
best suited for large stationary power generators. They operate at 600 degrees
Celsius, so they can generate steam that can be used to generate more power.
They have a lower operating temperature than solid oxide fuel cells, which
means they don't need such exotic materials. This makes the design a little less
expensive.
Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC): The phosphoric-acid fuel cell has potential
for use in small stationary power-generation systems. It operates at a higher
temperature than polymer exchange membrane fuel cells, so it has a longer
warm-up time. This makes it unsuitable for use in cars.
 MagnetoHydrodynamic power generation(MHD)

An MHD generator, like a conventional generator, relies on moving a

conductor through a magnetic field to generate electric current. The MHD
generator uses hot conductive plasma as the moving conductor.
The MHD generator can be considered to be a fluid dynamo. This is similar to
a mechanical dynamo in which the motion of a metal conductor through a
magnetic field creates a current in the conductor except that in the MHD
generator the metal conductor is replaced by a conducting gas plasma.
When a conductor moves through a magnetic field it creates an electrical field
perpendicular to the magnetic field and the direction of movement of the
conductor. This is the principle, discovered by Michael Faraday, behind the
conventional rotary electricity generator. Dutch physicist Lorentz provided the
mathematical theory to quantify its effects.
Lorentz Law describing the effects of a charged particle moving in a constant
magnetic field can be stated as
F = QvB
F is the force acting on the charged particle v is velocity of particle
Q is charge of particle B is magnetic field

The MHD generator needs a high temperature gas source, which could be the
coolant from a nuclear reactor or more likely high temperature combustion
gases generated by burning fossil fuels, including coal, in a combustion
chamber. The diagram below shows possible system components.
The expansion nozzle reduces the gas pressure and consequently increases the
plasma speed (Bernoulli's Law) through the generator duct to increase the
power output. Unfortunately, at the same time, the pressure drop causes the
plasma temperature to fall which also increases the plasma resistance, so a
compromise must be found.
The Faraday Current: A powerful electromagnet provides the magnetic field
through which the plasma flows, and perpendicular to this field are installed
the two electrodes on opposite sides of the plasma across which the electrical
output voltage is generated. The current flowing across the plasma between
these electrodes is called the Faraday current. This provides the main electrical
output of the MHD generator.
The Hall Effect Current: The very high Faraday output current which flows
across the plasma duct into the load itself reacts with the applied magnetic
field creating a Hall Effect current perpendicular to the Faraday current, in
other words, a current along the axis of the plasma, resulting in lost energy.
The total current generated will be the vector sum of the transverse (Faraday)
and axial (Hall effect) current components. Unless it can be captured in some
way, the Hall effect current will constitute an energy loss.
 Solar Cell
A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
 A solar cell is composed of pn semiconductor junctions.
 For a single crystal silicon, p is obtained by doping silicon with boron and is
typically 1 micrometer thick; n is obtained by doping silicon with arsenic and
is typically 800 micrometer thick.
The sun’s photons strike the cell on the micro thin p side and penetrate
junction. There they generate electron-hole pairs. When the cell is connected
to a load, the electrons will diffuse from n to p and electricity is generated.