3
• Kaidah termodinamika dalam sistem biologik
• Kaidah pertama termodinamika:
• Kaidah pertama ini merupakan hukum penyimpanan
energi, yang berbunyi: energi total sebuah sistem,
termasuk energi sekitarnya adalah konstan. Ini
berarti bahwa saat terjadi perubahan di dalam sistem
tidak ada energi yang hilang atau diperoleh. Namun
energi dapat dialihkan antar bagian sistem atau dapat
diubah menjadi energi bentuk lain. Contohnya energi
kimia dapat diubah menjadi energi listrik, panas,
mekanik dan sebagainya
• Kaidah kedua termodinamika:
• Kaidah kedua berbunyi: entropi total sebuah sistem
harus meningkat bila proses ingin berlangsung
spontan. Entropi adalah derajat ketidakteraturan atau
keteracakan sistem. Entropi akan mencapai taraf maksimal
di dalam sistem seiring sistem mendekati keadaan
seimbang yang sejati. Dalam kondisi suhu dan tekanan
konstan, hubungan antara perubahan energi bebas (ΔG)
pada sebuah sistem yang bereaksi, dengan perubahan
entropi (ΔS), diungkapkan dalam persamaan:
• ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
• Keterangan: ΔH adalah perubahan entalpi (panas) dan T
adalah suhu absolut.
• Di dalam kondisi reaksi biokimia, mengingat ΔH kurang
lebih sama dengan ΔE, perubahan total energi internal di
dalam reaksi, hubungan di atas dapat diungkapkan dengan
persamaan:
• ΔG = ΔE – TΔS
• Jika ΔG bertanda negatif, reaksi berlangsung spontan
dengan kehilangan energi bebas (reaksi eksergonik). Jika
ΔG sangat besar, reaksi benar-benar berlangsung sampai
selesai dan tidak bisa membalik (irreversibel).
• Jika ΔG bertanda positif, reaksi berlangsung hanya jika
memperoleh energi bebas (reaksi endergonik). Bila ΔG
sangat besar, sistem akan stabil tanpa kecenderungan untuk
terjadi reaksi.
• PADA ILMU KIMIA TELAH DIKENAL ADANYA:
1.REAKSI ENDOTERMIS: REAKSI YG MEMERLUKAN
PANAS
2.REAKSI EKSOTERMIS: REAKSI YG
MENGHASILKAN PANAS
Energi E
kimia
End
Eks ~E
Endergonik
• MEKANISME PENGAITAN:
1. MELALUI PEMBENTUKAN SENYAWA ANTARA:
A + C | SA | B + D
2. MELALUI PEMBENTUKAN SENYAWA KAYA ENERGI (~ E )
AD2:
CARA: SUATU SENYAWA (E) AKAN MENANGKAP ENERGI YG
DIHASILKAN OLEH REAKSI EKSERGONIK ~E, DAN KEMUDIAN
~E AKAN MEMBERIKAN ENERGINYA UNTUK REAKSI ENDERGONIK
~ ADALAH SIMBOL UNTUK MENUNJUKKAN IKATAN BERENERGI
TINGGI
kead. transisi
Ea''
kead. awal G = Perubahan
E. bebas
kead. akhir
Perjalanan
reaksi
Biologic oxidation
18
O2
H 2O
Carbohydrate,
CO2
lipid, etc
mitochondrion ATP
enzymes
19
The concept of the biological
oxidation
20
Definisi
• Oksidasi = pengurangan elektron / ion H+
• Reduksi = penambahan elektron / ion H+
• Contoh oksidasi:
e
Fe2+ Fe3+
22
1. Oksidase
23
Enzim Oksidase
AH2 ½ O2 AH2 O2
Oksidase
A H2O A H2O2
1. Sitokrom oksidase
25
Sitokrom Oksidase
26
Flavoprotein
27
2. Dehidrogenase
Memiliki 2 fungsi utama:
1. - Memindahkan H dlm reaksi redoks.
- Sering memakai koenzim NAD+/NADP+
yg membutuhkan niasin.
2. - Sebagai komponen rantai respirasi.
28
Rangkaian Reaksi Dehidrogenase
AH2 Pembawa BH2
(red) (oks) (red)
A Pembawa-H2 B
(oks) (red) (oks)
A B
dehidrogenase dehidrogenase
29
3. Hidroperoksidase
• Kelompok enzim ini melindungi tubuh
terhadap peroksida,
• Karena akumulasi peroksida dapat
mencetuskan radikal bebas yg merusak
membran sel.
• Terdiri dari 2 macam enzim:
1. Peroksidase
2. Katalase
30
Peroksidase
31
Peroksidase
H2O2 + AH2 2H2O + A
32
Peroksidase
33
Katalase
34
Katalase & Oksidase
A’H2 A’
AH2 A
H2O2 O2
35
4. Oksigenase
36
Dioksigenase
37
Monooksigenase
38
Monooksigenase Sitokrom P450
39
Organisme Autotrofik
40
Organisme Heterotrofik
41
Adenosin Trifosfat (ATP)
N
Mg2+ N
O- O- O-
-O P O P O P O CH O
O O O
43
OH OH
Metabolisme
46
Siklus ATP/ADP
ATP
CO2
O2
ADP + Pi
47
Sumber Utama P-berenergi-tinggi
1. Fosforilasi oksidasi;
-Sumber P terbesar dlm organisme aerobik.
-Energi bebasnya berasal dari oksidasi rantai
respirasi.
2. Glikolisis;
-Pembentukan dua P dari hasil katalisis
fosfogliserat kinase & piruvat kinase.
3. Daur Krebs;
-Satu P-berenergi-tinggi dibentuk pada tahap
suksinil tiokinase.
48
Peran Rantai Respirasi
asam lemak
+ b-oksidasi
gliserol ATP
O2
rantai respirasi
Asam amino ADP
mitokondria
49
50
Rantai Respirasi
53
Produk ATP pada Fosforilasi Oksidatif
54
ATP Sintase
55
Kepustakaan
56
The three stages of
biological oxidation
57
Nutriment materials
Acetyl coenzyme A
Stage 2
Oxidative phosphorylation 58
59
Mitochondrion oxidation
system
60
metabolism
Carbohydrate, lipid, H2O, CO2
proteins
FADH, NADH
H2O,
Mitochondrial oxidation
system
energy 61
the structure of
mitochondrion
Out membrane
Inner membrane
matrix 62
63
ATP synthase
F0-F1 complex
64
65
respiratory chain
1. concept
2. constitutes
four electron-carrier
complexes 66
67
3. types
NADH oxidation
respiratory chain
Succinate oxidation
respiratory chain
68
4. The components & function
of the each electron-carrier
complexes in these two
respiratory chain
structure
function
types
71
72
73
* iron-sulfur proteins
structure
function
74
75
2 3
Fe Fe
76
* ubiquinone,Q (coenzyme Q)
structure
function
77
78
79
B. complex Ⅱ ( succinic-Q reductase )
Fe-s
AH2 FAD Q
reduced
A Fe-S
FADH2
QH2
oxidized
80
81
C. complex Ⅲ
(Q-CytC reductase )
Contain:
cytb562 C
cytb
cytc
cytb566 C1
iron-sulfur proteins
82
* cytochromes, ( cyt )
a. structure
83
84
b. Classification:
cytb562
cycb
cytb566
C
cytc
C1
a
cyta
a3 85
c. the differences between
each cytochromes
iron in protoporphyrin
prosthetic group
87
88
2 3
Fe Fe
89
D. complexⅣ
(CytC oxidase )
Contain:
cyta,a3
CuA,CuB
90
91
5. The orders of these
complexes in the respiratory
chain
A.
A. NADH oxidation
respiratory chain 92
• Compose of complex
Ⅰ, Ⅲ, Ⅳ
a. contain : +
NAD ,FMN(Fe-S),
CoQ,Cytb, c1,c ,
aa3,Cu,O2
93
b. order
94
95
96
B. Succinate oxidation
respiratory chain
• Compose of complex
Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳ
97
a. contain :
FAD+ (Fe-S), CoQ,
Cytb, c1,c ,
aa3,Cu, O2
98
b. order
99
C. the evidences of the
arrangement order
• redox potential
• light absorption spectra
• inhibitors
100
101
102
• gentle treatment with
detergents
105
106
Oxidative phosphorylation
A. concept
107
Metabolic oxidized
materials products
Respiratory chain
2H +1/2 O2 H2O
energy
109
a. the methods for
estimate of the coupling
sites
ΔG0’= -nFΔE0’
112
example:
electrons pass from NADH(E0’=-0.32v )
to O2(E0’=+0.82v)
ΔG0’= -296.6[0.82-(-0.32)]= -220 KJ
NADH Q ΔG0’= -69.4 KJ
CytB CytC ΔG0’= -34.7 KJ
Cytaa3 O2 ΔG0’= - 102.3 KJ
113
114
C. The mechanism of Oxidative
phosphorylation
115
116
D. factors effecting on oxidative
phosphorylation
• ADP/ATP
• Thyroid hormone
117
E. inhibitors of oxidative
phosphorylation
• inhibitors of oxidative
phosphorylation (oligomycin)118
119
120
121
The storage,release,& utilization
of ATP
122
• oxidative phosphorylation
123
example:
1,3-diphosphoglycerate + ADP phosphoglycerate + ATP
ATP
124
B. the storage of ATP
• phosphocreatin
125
C . the other nucleoside
triphosphates
126
Electrons from cytosolic NADH
enter mitochondrial by shuttles
• Malate-asparate shuttle
127
RADIKAL BEBAS
128
Reactive Oxygen
Species
I. Free radicals & ROS Defined
II. Sources of ROS
III. Oxidative damage in biological systems
IV. Antioxidant Defense
V. ROS signaling and redox sensitive pathways
VI. Oxidative stress and disease
VII. Detection methods for ROS & oxidative stress
I. Free Radicals & ROS Defined
Anaerobic metabolism-glycolysis
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi Lactate + 2ATP + 2H2O
: :
: :
. O:O .
Hydrogen peroxide
Organic hydroperoxides ~ minutes
Hypohalous acids
Peroxynitrite ~ milliseconds
Superoxide anion
Singlet oxygen ~ microsecond
Alcoxyl radicals
Antioxidants
Prooxidants
Hydrogen abstraction
R. + LH RH + L.
Electron abstraction
R. + ArNH2 R- + ArNH2.+
Termination
R. + Y. R-Y
Disproportionation
CH3CH2. + CH3CH2. CH3CH3 + CH2=CH2
Hydroxyl radical (.OH)
From: McMurry and Castellion “Fundamentals of general, organic and biological chemistry”
II. Sources of ROS
Endogenous sources of ROS and RNS
Microsomal Oxidation,
Flavoproteins, Myeloperoxidase
CYP enzymes (phagocytes)
Xanthine Oxidase,
NOS isoforms Endoplasmic Reticulum Transition
metals
Cytoplasm Lysosomes
Fe
Cu
Oxidases, Peroxisomes
Flavoproteins Mitochondria
Plasma Membrane
Lipoxygenases,
Electron transport
Prostaglandin synthase
NADPH oxidase
Mitochondria as a source of ROS
Mitochondrial electron chain
Quinone cycle
Activation of the gp91phox (NOX2) containing NOX complex of phagocytes involves phosphorylation of the
cytoplasmic regulator p47phox, with the translocation of the cytoplasmic p47phox, p67phox, and p40phox
regulatory components to the plasma membrane to interact with flavocytochrome-b558, which is composed of
gp91phox and p22phox. Activation of the complex also involves guanine nucleotide exchange on the GTP-binding
protein RAC stimulated by guanine nucleotide exchange factors. Guanine nucleotide exchange on RAC is associated
with release of RhoGDI and translocation of RAC from the cytosol to the NOX complex at the plasma membrane.
Prostaglandin H Synthase (PHS) as a source of ROS
Co-oxidation of xenobiotics (X) during
arachidonic acid metabolism to PGH2
PHS
Cytoplasmic sources of ROS and RNS
A scheme of the catalytic cycle of cytochrome P450-containing monooxygenases. The binding of the substrate (RH) to ferric P450
(a) results in the formation of the substrate complex (b). The ferric P450 then accepts the first electron from CPR (cytochrome P450
reductase), thereby being reduced to the ferrous intermediate (c). This intermediate then binds an oxygen molecule to form
oxycomplex (d), which is further reduced to give peroxycomplex (e). The input of protons to this intermediate can result in the
heterolytic cleavage of the O–O bond, producing H2O and the ‘oxenoid’ complex (f), the latter of which then inserts the heme-bound
activated oxygen atom into the substrate molecule to produce ROH. In eukaryotic monooxygenases, reactive oxygen species (ROS)
are produced by ‘leaky’ branches (red arrows). In one such branch, a superoxide anion radical is released owing to the decay of the
one-electron-reduced ternary complex (d). The second ROS-producing branch is the protonation of the peroxycytochrome P450 (e),
which forms of H2O2. In addition to these ROS-producing branches, another mechanism of electron leakage appears to be the four-
electron reduction of the oxygen molecule with the production of water (Davydov, Trends Biochem Sci, 2001).
Microsomes as a source of ROS (II)
• Radiation
UV light, x-rays, gamma rays
• Chemicals that react to form peroxides
Ozone and singlet oxygen
• Chemicals that promote superoxide formation
Quinones, nitroaromatics, bipyrimidiulium herbicides
• Chemicals that are metabolized to radicals
e.g., polyhalogenated alkanes, phenols, aminophenols
• Chemicals that release iron
ferritin
UV radiation
UVA = 320-400 nm
UVB UVB = 290-320 nm
H2O2 OH. + OH. UVC = 100-290 nm
Ionizing radiation
g-rays
2H2O H2O + e- + H2O*
H2O* H + .OH
•High energy radiation will result in .OH
Quinone redox cycling as a mechanism to generate ROS
O3 + C C C C
Ozone
O O
1O
2 + C C C C
Singlet oxygen
Chemicals that promote O2.- formation
NAD(P)H NAD(P)+
Flavoprotein
H3C N+ . CH3
H3C N+ N+ CH3 N
Paraquat
Paraquat
radical
cation
O2.- O2
Chemicals that are metabolized to radicals
Polyhalogenated alkanes
Phenols, aminophenols
Chemicals that are metabolized to radicals
Chemicals that release iron
+ e-
Ferretin Fe2+ Fenton Chemistry
•Requires reductant
•Promotes .OH formation
•Promotes lipid peroxidation in vitro
III. Oxidative Damage in Biological Systems
Catalyzed by metals
LOOH + Fe2+ OH- + LO. + Fe3+
Consequences of lipid peroxidation
• Structural changes in membranes
alter fluidity and channels
alter membrane-bound signaling proteins
increases ion permeability
• Lipid peroxidation products form adducts/crosslinks
with non lipids
e.g., proteins and DNA
• Cause direct toxicity of lipid peroxidation products
e.g., 4-hydroxynonenal toxicity
• Disruptions in membrane-dependent signaling
• DNA damage and mutagenesis
Protein targets for ROS
NH2 H NH2
HS CH2CHCOOH H3C S CH2CH2 C COOH HO CH2CHCOOH
NH2
Cysteine Methionine Tyrosine
CH2CHCOOH
HN
Histidine
NH2
HN CH2CHCOOH
Tryptophan
Consequences of protein thiol oxidation
N N N
HN N N
OH OH OH
N N N HO N N
H2N N
H
R R R
O O
NH2
CH3 CH2OH
H
HN OH N
N OH
OH OH
O N
O N H O H
H H
5,8-dihydroxycytosine thymidine glycol 5-hydroxymethyluracil
Oxidation of deoxyribose (DNA backbone)
O B O B B
O O O
O
. .
H
. O O O
R Strand
O P OR O P OR O P OR
Breaks
O- O- O-
O2
O
O O B B
O O
. OO O
O +B +
O
O P OR O P OR
.O O
O
O- O-