Architectural Principles & Elements

of Architectural Design
CLIMATIC ELEMENTS

The climate of a given region not only plays an important

part in the composition of soil but also affects the character of plants
and animals and the energy of men. The principle climatic elements
when human comfort and building design is being considered are:

1. Solar radiation
2. Air temperature
3. Atmospheric humidity
4. Wind
5. Precipitation
6. Driving rain index
7. Sky conditions
8. Special characteristics
9. Vegetation
SOLAR RADIATION

- Solar radiation is the source of all the earth’s energy and is therefore the
dominating influence on all climatic phenomena.

-Generally the intensity of the radiation reaching the upper surface of the
atmosphere is taken as the solar constant, i.e, 1395 watts/sq. m. but it may
vary due to the variations of output of the sun itself and the changes in the
earth-sun distance. Solar radiation also varies greatly with the geographical
location, altitude and weather.

- There are three ways in which solar energy can be transferred from one
point to another. They are conduction, convection and radiation.

- As the sun’s radiation passes through the atmosphere, a series of losses

occur and the amount of reduction depends on the length of the path that it
travels.
1. About 5% of the radiation is reflected from the ground.
2. 20% is reflected from the clouds.
3. 25% is absorbed in the atmosphere.
4. 23% is diffused on the ground.
5. 27% falls directly on the ground
As the surface of the earth absorbs energy, its temperature increases and it
radiates energy, which is absorbed by the atmosphere. The temperature of
the atmosphere increases and it in turn radiates heat, some down towards
the earth and outward into the space.

These affect the building in 2 ways:

1. By entering through the windows and then being absorbed by the

internal surfaces, causing a heating effect.

2. Through being absorbed by the outside surface of the building and a

large proportion, which is conducted through the structure and is eventually
emitted to the interior.
Another form of heat transfer affecting buildings is the outgoing long wave
radiation from buildings to the sky - an affect, which is reduced when the sky
is clouded and strongest when the atmosphere is clear and dry.

SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENTS:

- The accepted international standard unit (S I) is watt per sq.m. (W/m2). This
is the instantaneous intensity. The total radiation received over a longer
period, one day, for instance, will be expressed in joule/m2/day.

- Instruments like solarimeter, heliometer, actinometer, and the pyranometer

are used for the quantitative recording of solar radiation.
AIR TEMPERATURE :

- Since air temperature varies from one side of the building to another, from
shaded to unshaded areas, from grass-paved fields to paved roads it is an
element difficult to define.

- The rate of heating and cooling of the earth’s surface is the main factor
determining the temperature of the earth above it.

- The air layer directly in contact with the ground is heated by conduction and
this is transferred in turn to upper layer mainly by convection. Hence the
nature of the ground is important to determine the air temperature.

AIR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT:

The Temperature of the air is measured in Degree Celsius, most often with a
mercury thermometer. The dry bulb or ‘True Air Temperature’ is the value
taken in the shade. Readings can be taken at specified times of the day. A
thermograph may be used which gives a continuous graphic recording of
temperature variations.
 ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY:

The term atmospheric humidity refers to the water vapor contained of the atmosphere
gained as a result of evaporation from the exposed water surfaces, moist ground and water
transpiration.

For any given temperature there is a limit to amount of water that can be held as vapor and the
capacity of the air increases progressively with the increase in temperature. The vapor
distribution is thus not uniform and varies parallel with the pattern of annual solar radiation
and temperature average and is the highest in the tropical region and decreases towards the
pole.
Humidity Measurement:
Several terms like absolute humidity, specific humidity are used to express the moisture content of
the air.
Absolute Humidity (AH):
It the amount of moisture presents in the unit mass/unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of
g/kg or g/m3.
 Relative Humidity (RH):
This is a much more useful form of humidity measurement. It gives a direct indication of the vapor
potential.
The maximum amount of moisture that the air can hold is called the saturation point humidity (SH),
and depends on the temperature.

Relative humidity = Actual amount of moisture present

Amount of moisture the air can hold at given temperature

And is expressed as percentage (%)

RH = AH/SH x 100
It is usually measured with wet and dry hygrometer.
 Vapor pressure:
Another indication of the atmospheric humidity is the vapor pressure that is partial pressure of
the water vapor present in the air. The atmospheric pressure P is the sum of the partial pressure
of the dry air and partial vapor pressure.
P = P (a) + P (v)

The SI unit of vapor pressure is N/m2.

PRECIPITATION:
It is a collective term for rain, snow, dew, frost etc. that is all form of water precipitated from
the atmosphere. When saturated air is cooled, reducing its moisture holding capacity, its
relative humidity rises until eventually it becomes saturated and any further cooling leads to
condensation. Air may be cooled by coming in contact with cooler surface or cool air. As the air
rises pressure on it decreases it therefore expands and is cooled. As the air continues to rise,
large scale condensation takes place and small droplets becomes large drops. When they are
unable to be held by gravity, precipitation occurs in the form of rain, snow and hail.
 SOME POINTS TO NOTE:
1. More rain occurs in the tropical latitudes
2. Winds from the sea bring in more rain.
3. Winds that blow over warm ocean currents give more rain than those that blow
over cold ocean currents
4. Low-pressure areas bring in more rains.

PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT:
Precipitation is measured by rain gauge. It is expressed in mm/unit time or mm/month
or day.It measures the depth of the rain, which would cover the ground if none of it
evaporated or drained away.
 WIND:

The variability of the wind is revealed in both its speed and its direction, which is
always referred to as the direction from which the wind is coming. The winds over a
region, their distribution and characteristics are determined by several global factors.
The principle determinants are the seasonal differences in atmospheric pressure
between different places, rotation of the earth, the daily variation in the heating and the
cooling of land and of the given region and its surroundings.

WIND MEASUREMENT:

Wind velocity is measured by anemometer, which consist of four metal or plastic cups
on the arms, which spins around a vertical pole. A dial at the base records the number
of revolutions made by the cups in a given period. Wind velocity is measured in m/sec
or km/hr.
 SKY CONDITIONS:
A single average figure giving sky conditions of a typical day of a month may conceal
significant differences ex: early morning and the afternoon conditions may affect the
design of roofs, overhangs and shading devices.

SKY CONDITIONS MEASUREMENT:

Meteorologists measure the amount of cloud covering the sky in a unit called an okta /
octate. One such unit represents 1/8th of the cloud cover.

VEGETATION:
It is an important element in the design of outdoor spaces, providing sun shading and
protection from glare.

DRIVING RAIN INDEX

- It is the product of annual rainfall in meters and annual average wind velocity in
m/sec.
- This is usually used for coastal areas.
Its dimension is in m2/sec.