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INTRODUCTION

What is DFM?
DFM is product design considering manufacturing
requirements
DFM is the first step in which a team approach is taken to
develop the product
DFM is an umbrella which covers a variety of tools and
techniques to accomplish a manufacturable product
Why DFM?
Lower development cost
Shorter development time
Faster manufacturing start of build
Lower assembly and test costs
Higher quality

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How do all the pieces fit together?
The objective of DFM is to identify product concepts that are
easy to manufacture
Focus on component design for ease of manufacture and
assembly
Integrate manufacturing to ensure the best match of needs
and requirements.
DFM in industry is typically divided into 2 main activities:

A team which will be responsible for the product

development and delivery. (cross functional team:
ME, EE, MFG., CE, PE, Quality)
The tools and methods to enable DFM that ensure
the design meets the objectives.

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How much do engineering changes cost after the design has been
launched?

10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000 Cost
3000
2000
1000
0
Design Test Tool Prod
Build

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When has the total cost be committed?

100
90
80
70
60
50 Incurred
40 Commit
30
20
10
0
Design Testing Tool Build Production

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 DFM Product Considerations

 Product Considerations
 Environmental
 Ergonomics  Customer
 Safety  Depth of product line
 Pollution  Customization
 Recycling  Test requirements
 Shock/vibration
 Temperature
 Process and Tooling
 Cycle time
 Suppliers
 Quality
 Partnerships
 Ease of Assembly
 Supplier tolerance capability
 Ease of Testing
 Merging mechanical sub-assemblies
 Rework
 Costs
 Shipping and Handling
 Tooling Costs

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DFM Tools and Methodology

Tools and Methodologies

Design For Assembly (DFA), (IBM experience)
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA), (Sun
example)
Taguchi Method, (Hitachi experience)
Value Analysis--”Value Engineering” (HP
example)
Quality Function Deployment (QFD), Going to
the Gemba (Hitachi)
Group Technology, (IBM example)
Cost management and optimization, SPC, Six-
Sigma (Motorola), TQC, etc

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 Summary of DFA Guidelines
1. Minimize the number of parts
2. Standardize and use as many common parts as
possible
3. Design parts for ease of fabrication (use
castings without machining and stampings
without bend)
4. Minimize the number of assembly planes (Z-
axis)
5. Use standard cutters, drills, tools
6. Avoid small holes (chips, straightness, debris)
7. Use common datum’s for tooling fixtures
8. Minimize assembly directions
9. Maximize compliance; design for assembly
10. Minimize handling
11. Eliminate adjustments
12. Use repeatable, well understood processes
13. Design parts for efficient testing
14. Avoid hidden features
15. Use Guide features
16. Incorporate symmetry in both axis
17. Avoid designs that will tangle.
18. Design parts that orient themselves

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FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analysis)
Method for analyzing the causes and effects of failures.
Highlights designs and assemblies most likely to cause
failures.
Helps identify and prioritize corrective action
Indicates where the most improvement in terms of severity,
frequency, and detectability can be made.
Widely used manufacturing technique (Mil standards, SAE,
ANSI Specs)

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DESIGN AXIOMS

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 DFM TOOL KITS
1) TAGUCHI QUALITY ENGINEERING
2) GROUP TECHNOLOGY
3) VALUE ENGINEERING= Value index = worth/cost=
utility/cost
4) Design for assembly cost ( DAC)
5) Assembly evaluation method ( AEM)
6) Design for quality- TQE, QFD,Bench marking
7) Design for maintainability
8) Design for Relaibilty
9) Design for disassembly
10)Design for life cycle
11)Design for serviciability / recyclability

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 DESIGN PRINCIPLE FOR ECONOMIC PRODUCTION

1. Designs should be as simple as possible to

manufacture ,assembly, disassemble, service and
recycle
2. Materials should be chosen for their appropriate
design and manufacturing characteristics as well as
their service life
3. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish specified
should be as broad as permissible
4. Secondary and finishing operations should be
avoided or minimized to reduce cost

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 Enables successful manufacturing and sales
 Prevents scrap, sorting, rework
 Allows jobs to run well
 Has major impact on cost and schedule

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 Heights  Pressure
 Weights  Roughness
 Lengths  Strength
 Widths  Conductivity
 Diameters  Loudness
 Wattage  Speed
 Horsepower  Torque
 Miles per Gallon  Etc. etc. etc.

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 XX
XXX
XXXXX
Specification XXXXXXX Specification
Limit MIN Limit MAX

.512 .513 .514 .515 . 516 .517 .518 .519 .520 .521 .522 .523 .524 .525 .526 .527 .528

In the real world, units are NOT EXACTLY the same.

Everything VARIES.

The question isn’t IF units vary.

It’s how much, when, and why.

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 The “normal bell curve”
XX
XX XXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXX XXXXXX
XXXXXX XXXXXXX
XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXX

Widths, heights, depths, thicknesses, weights, speeds, strengths, and

many other types of measurements, when charted as a histogram,
often form the shape of a bell.*

A “perfect bell,” like a “perfect circle,” doesn’t occur in nature, but

many processes are close enough to make the bell curve useful.

(*A number of common industrial measurements, such as flatness and straightness, do NOT tend to
distribute in a bell shape; their proper statistical analysis is performed using models other than the bell
curve.)

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 What is a “standard deviation”?
XX
XX
Typical distance from XXX Typical distance from
the center: -1 XXX XXXX the center: +1
standard deviation XXXX XXXX standard deviation
XXXX XXXXX
XXXXX XXXXX
XXXXX XXXXXX
XXXXXX XXXXXX
XXXXXX XXXXXXX
XXXXXXX XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXX

If we measure the DISTANCE from the CENTER of the bell

to each individual measurement that makes up the bell curve,
we can find a TYPICAL DISTANCE.

The most commonly used statistic to estimate this distance is the

Standard Deviation (also called “Sigma”).

Because of the natural shape of the bell curve, the area of +1 to –1 standard
deviations includes about 68% of the curve.

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 How much of the curve is included in how many standard deviations?

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6

From –1 to +1 is about 68% of the bell curve.

From –2 to +2 is about 95%
From –3 to +3 is about 99.73%
From –4 to +4 is about 99.99%

(NOTE: We usually show the bell from –3 to +3 to make it easier to draw, but in concept,
the “tails” of the bell get very thin and go on forever.)

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 What is Cpk? It is a measure of how well
a process is within a specification.
A
Cpk =
A divided by
B B

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

Cpk = A divided by B
A = Distance from process mean to closest spec limit
B = 3 Standard Deviations (also called “3 Sigma”)

A bigger Cpk is better because fewer units will be beyond spec.

(A bigger “A” and a smaller “B” are better.)

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 “Process Capability” is the ability of a process
to fit its output within the tolerances.
A
Cpk =
A divided by
B B

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

…a LARGER “A”
…and a SMALLER “B”
…means BETTER “Process Capability”

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 An Analogy

A
Cpk =
A divided by
B B

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

Analogy:
The bell curve is your automobile.
The spec limits are the edges of your garage door.
If A = B, you are hitting the frame of your garage door with your car.

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 How can we make Cpk (A divided by B) better?

A
Cpk =
A divided by
B B

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

1. Design the product so a wider tolerance is functional (“robust design”)

2. Choose equipment and methods for a good safety margin (“process capability”)
3. Correctly adjust, but only when needed (“control”)
4. Discover ways to narrow the natural variation (“improvement”)

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 What does a very good Cpk do for us?
A
This Cpk is
B about 2.
Very good!

Specification Specification
Limit Mean Limit

This process is producing good units with a good safety margin.

Note that when Cpk = 2, our process mean is 6 standard deviations from the
nearest spec, so we say it has “6 Sigma Capability.”

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 What does a problem Cpk look like?
A
This Cpk is just
B slightly greater than
1. Not good!

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

This process is in danger of producing some defects.

It is too close to the specification limits.

(Remember: the bell curve tail goes further than B…

…we only show the bell to 3-sigma to make it easier to draw.)

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 What does a very bad Cpk look like?
A
This Cpk is less
B than 1. We desire a
minimum of 1.33 and
ultimately we want
2 or more.

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

A significant part of the “tail” is hanging out beyond the spec limits.
This process is producing scrap, rework, and customer rejects.
Notice that if distance “A” approaches zero…
…the Cpk would approach zero, and…
…the process would become 50% defective!

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 Free software is available to draw a histogram
and calculate average, standard deviation, and Cpk.

Located at: www.rockfordpowertrain.com/supplier

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 What “Six Sigma Philosophy” did Motorola
teach its suppliers in the 1980’s?

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

In the 1980’s, Motorola achieved dramatic quality improvements and won the
USA’s Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.

Motorola began seminars teaching its “Six Sigma Philosophy” to its suppliers,
and to other companies.

The following few slides depict some original messages from that time.

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 Robust Design – part of the original Six Sigma
Known
Existing
Process

New Product New Product

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

The new design above has tolerances set “tight” to a known existing process, while the
one below has tolerances that allow “six sigma capability”.

Products have thousands of tolerances. They result from choices about shapes,
thicknesses, grades of materials, and grades of components. “Robust design” is NOT
about permitting “sloppiness.” It requires very smart engineering to allow ample
tolerances AND achieve satisfactory function.
Known
Existing
Process

New Product New Product

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

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 Robust Processes – part of the original Six Sigma
New Process
choice “X”

New Product New Product

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

The process above varies so much that it “fills” the design tolerance. The different
process below has good repeatability for “six sigma capability”.

It’s a false-economy to choose an allegedly lower-cost process that “uses up” all
tolerance. The resulting scrap, rework, rejections, recalls, damage to reputation, crisis
communications, and fire-fighting cancel out the alleged economy. “Robust Process”
requires skillful insight to choose ways to make defect-free product at the lowest real
cost.
New Process
choice “Y”

New Product New Product

Specification Specification
Limit Limit

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Chapter Table of Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Development Processes and Organizations
3. Opportunity Identification
4. Product Planning
5. Identifying Customer Needs
6. Product Specifications
7. Concept Generation
8. Concept Selection
9. Concept Testing
10. Product Architecture
11. Industrial Design
12. Design for Environment
13. Design for Manufacturing
14. Prototyping
15. Robust Design
16. Patents and Intellectual Property
17. Product Development Economics
18. Managing Projects

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 Concept System-Level Detail Testing and Production
Planning Development Design Design Refinement Ramp-Up

How can we emphasize manufacturing issues

throughout the development process?

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 DFX concept
 DFM objectives
 DFM method
 Mfg. cost estimation
 DFM impacts
 DFM examples

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 Design for manufacturing (DFM) is a development
practice emphasizing manufacturing issues
throughout the product development process.
 Successful DFM results in lower production cost
without sacrificing product quality.

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 DFM is part of DFX
 DFM often requires a cross-function team
 DFM is performed through the development process

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 Reduce component costs
 Reduce assembly cost
 Reduce production support costs

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1) Estimate the mfg. costs
2) Reduce the costs of components
3) Reduce the costs of assembly
4) Reduce the costs of supporting production
5) Consider the impact of DFM decisions on
other factors.

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 Cost categories
◦ Component vs. assembly vs. overhead
◦ Fixed vs. variable
◦ Material vs. labor
 Estimate costs for standard parts
◦ Compare to similar part in use
◦ Get a quote from vendors
 Estimate costs of custom made parts
◦ Consider material costs, labor costs, and tooling costs
◦ Depend on the production volume as well
 Estimate costs of assembly
◦ Summing up all assembly operations (time by rate)
 Estimate the overhead costs
◦ A % of the cost drives

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 Identify process constraints and cost drivers
 Redesign components to eliminate processing steps
 Choose the appropriate economic scale for the part
process
 Standardize components and their processes
 Adhere the black-box component

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 Integrate parts (using the Boothroyd
method)
 Maximize ease of assembly

 Consider customer assembly (do-it-

yourself) technology driven products

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 Minimize systematic complexity (such as plastic
injection modeling for one step of making a complex
product)
 Error proofing (anticipate possible failure modes in the
production system and take appropriate corrective
actions early in the development process)

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 Development time
 Development cost
 Product quality
 External factors such as
◦ component reuse and
◦ life cycle costs

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 Exhibit 13-15 on Page 274
 Unit cost saving of 45%
 Mass saving of 66% (33 Kg.)
 Simplified assembly and service procedures.
 Improved emissions performance
 Improved engine performance
 Reduce shipping costs (due to lighter
components)
 Increased standardization across vehicle
programs.

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 Materials costs
◦ Exhibit 13-17 on page 279
 Component mfg. costs
◦ Exhibits 13/18-21 on pages 280-283
 Assembly costs
◦ Page 286 for common products
◦ Page 287 for part handling and insertion times
on Ex. 13-23
◦ Cost structures for firms on Ex 13-24.

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 Part shape strategies:
◦ adhere to specific process design guidelines
◦ if part symmetry is not possible, make parts very
asymmetrical
◦ design "paired" parts instead of right and left hand parts.
◦ design parts with symmetry.
◦ use chamfers and tapers to help parts engage.
◦ provide registration and fixturing locations.
◦ avoid overuse of tolerances.

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 Standardization strategy
◦ use standard parts
◦ standardize design features
◦ minimize the number of part types
◦ minimize number of total parts.
◦ standardize on types and length of linear materials and
code them.
◦ consider pre-finished material (pre-painted, pre-plated,
embossed, anodized).
◦ combine parts and functions into a single part.

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 Assembly strategies 1
◦ design product so that the subsequent parts can be added to
a foundation part.
◦ design foundation part so that it has features that allow it to
be quickly and accurately positioned.
◦ Design product so parts are assembled from above or from
the minimum number of directions.
◦ provide unobstructed access for parts and tools
◦ make parts independently replaceable.
◦ order assembly so the most reliable goes in first; the most
likely to fail last.

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 Assembly strategies 2
◦ make sure options can be added easily
◦ ensure the product's life can be extended with future upgrades.
◦ use sub-assemblies, especially if processes are different from
the main assembly.
◦ purchase sub-assemblies which are assembled and tested.

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 Fastening strategies 1
◦ use the minimum number of total fasteners
◦ use fewer large fasteners rather than many small fasteners
◦ use the minimum number of types of fasteners
◦ make sure screws should have the correct geometry so that
auto-feed screwdrivers can be used.
◦ design screw assembly for downward motion
◦ minimize use of separate nuts (use threaded holes).
◦ consider captive fasteners when applicable (including
captive nuts if threaded holes are not available).

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 Fastening strategies 2
◦ avoid separate washers and lockwashers (make it be
captivated on the bolt or nut so it can still spin with respect
to the fastener)
◦ use self-tapping screws when applicable.
◦ eliminate fasteners by combining parts.
◦ minimize use of fasteners with snap-together features.
◦ consider fasteners that push or snap on.
◦ specify proper tolerances for press fits.

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 Assembly motion strategies
◦ fastened parts are located before fastener is applied.
◦ assembly motions are simple.
◦ Assembly motions can be done with one hand or robot.
◦ assembly motions should not require skill or judgment.
◦ products should not need any mechanical or electrical
adjustments unless required for customer use.
◦ minimize electrical cables; plug electrical sub-assemblies
directly together.
◦ minimize the number of types of cable.

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 Automation handling strategies 1
◦ design and select parts that can be oriented by automation
◦ design parts to easily maintain orientation
◦ use parts that will not tangle when handled in bulk.
◦ use parts what will not shingle when fed end to end (avoid
disks).
◦ use parts that not adhere to each other or the track.
◦ specify tolerances tight enough for automatic handling.
◦ avoid flexible parts which are hard for automation to
handle.

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 Automation handling strategies 2
◦ make sure parts can be presented to automation.
◦ make sure parts can be gripped by automation.
◦ parts are within machine gripper span.
◦ parts are within automation load capacity.
◦ parting lines, spruces, gating or any flash do not interfere with
gripping.

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 Quality and test strategies
◦ product can be tested to ensure desired quality
◦ sub-assemblies are structured to allow sub-assembly testing
◦ testing can be performed by standard test instruments
◦ test instruments have adequate access.
◦ minimize the test effort spent on product testing consistent
with quality goals.
◦ tests should give adequate diagnostics to minimize repair
time.

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 DF Maintenance strategies 1
◦ provide ability for tests to diagnose problems
◦ make sure the most likely repair tasks are easy to perform.
◦ ensure repair tasks use the fewest tools.
◦ use quick disconnect features
◦ ensure that failure or wear prone parts are easy to replace
with disposable replacements
◦ provide inexpensive spare parts in the product.
◦ ensure availability of spare parts.

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 Maintenance strategies 2
◦ use modular design to allow replacement of modules.
◦ ensure modules can be tested, diagnosed, and adjusted while
in the product.
◦ sensitive adjustment should be protested from accidental
change.
◦ the product should be protected from repair damage.
◦ provide part removal aids for speed and damage prevention.
◦ protect parts with fuses and overloads

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 Maintenance strategies 3
◦ protect parts with fuses and overloads
◦ ensure any sub-assembly can be accessed through one door
or panel.
◦ access over which are not removable should be self-
supporting in the open position.
◦ connections to sub-assemblies should be accessible and easy
to disconnect.
◦ make sure repair, service or maintenance tasks pose no
safety hazards.
◦ make sure sub-assembly orientation is obvious or clearly
marked.

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 Maintenance strategies 4
◦ make sure sub-assembly orientation is obvious or clearly marked.
◦ provide means to locate sub-assembly before fastening.
◦ design products for minimum maintenance.
◦ design self-correction capabilities into products
◦ design products with self-test capability.
◦ design products with test ports
◦ design in counters and timers to aid preventative maintenance.
◦ specify key measurements for preventative maintenance programs
◦ include warning devices to indicate failures.

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 Axomatic Design by Nam Suh
◦ Axiom 1
 In good design, the independence of functional
requirements is maintained.
◦ Axiom 2
 Among the designs that satisfy axiom 1, the best
design is the one that has the minimum information
content.

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 Axiomatic design- corollaries
◦ Decouple or separate parts of a solution if functional requirements are
coupled or become coupled in the design of products and processes.
◦ Integrate functional requirements into a single physical part or solution
if they can be independently satisfied in the proposed solution.
◦ Integrate functional requirements and constraints.
◦ Use standardized or interchangeable parts whenever possible.
◦ Make use of symmetry to reduce the information content.
◦ Conserve materials and energy.
◦ A part should be a continuum if energy conduction is important.

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 DFA Method: Boothroyd and Dewhurst
◦ Apply a set of criteria to each part to determine
whether, theoretically, it should be separated from
all the other parts in the assembly.
◦ Estimate the handling and assembly costs for each
part using the appropriate assembly process -
manual, robotic, or high-speed automatic.

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 Three criteria
◦ Is there a need for relative motion?
◦ Is there a need for different materials
◦ Is there a need for maintenance?

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1. Minimize parts count.
2. Encourage modular assembly.
3. Stack assemblies.
4. Eliminate adjustments.
5. Eliminate cables.
6. Use self-fastening parts.
7. Use self-locating parts.
8. Eliminate reorientation.
9. Facilitate parts handling.
10. Specify standard parts.
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 Key ideas of DFA:
◦ Minimize parts count
◦ Maximize the ease of handling parts
◦ Maximize the ease of inserting parts
 Benefits of DFA
◦ Lower labor costs
◦ Other indirect benefits
 Popular software developed by Boothroyd
and Dewhurst.
◦ http://www.dfma.com

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 Handling Time
+ Insertion Time

Assembly Time

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 Ask of each part in a candidate design:
1. Does the part need to move relative to the rest
of the device?
2. Does it need to be of a different material
because of fundamental physical properties?
3. Does it need to be separated from the rest of
the device to allow for assembly, access, or
repair?
 If not, combine the part with another part in the
device.

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1. Organization: Cross-Functional Teams

2. Design Rules: Specialized by Firm

3. CAD Tools: Boothroyd-Dewhurst

Software

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Corporate
Strategy
Product
Strategy

Production
Strategy DFM
Strategy

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