Ac To DC Conversion (Rectifier) : Power Electronics and Drives (Version 3-2003), Dr. Zainal Salam, 2003 1

Chapter 2
AC to DC CONVERSION
(RECTIFIER)
• Single-phase, half wave rectifier
– Uncontrolled: R load, R-L load, R-C load
– Controlled
– Free wheeling diode
• Single-phase, full wave rectifier
– Uncontrolled: R load, R-L load,
– Controlled
– Continuous and discontinuous current mode
• Three-phase rectifier
– uncontrolled
– controlled
Power Electronics and 1

Drives (Version 3-2003),
Dr. Zainal Salam, 2003
Rectifiers
• DEFINITION: Converting AC (from
mains or other AC source) to DC power by
using power diodes or by controlling the
firing angles of thyristors/controllable
switches.
• Basic block diagram
AC input DC output
• Input can be single or multi-phase (e.g. 3-

phase).
• Output can be made fixed or variable
• Applications: DC welder, DC motor drive,

Battery charger,DC power supply, HVDC

Single-phase, half-wave, R-load
+
+
vs
vo
_
_
vs
 2 t
vo
io
Output vol tage (DC or average),


Vm
Vo  Vavg  1
 Vm sin(t )dt   0.318Vm
2 0 
Output vol tage (rms),
 2
1 Vm
Vo , RMS   Vm sin(  t ) d  t    0.5Vm
2 0 2

Half-wave with R-L load
i
+
vR +
+ _
vs vo
_ +
vL _
_
KVL : vs  v R  v L
di(t )
Vm sin(t )  i (t ) R  L
d t
First order differenti al eqn. Solution :
i (t )  i f (t )  in (t )
i f : forced response; in natural response,
From diagram, forced response is :
V 
i f (t )   m   sin(t   )
 Z 
where :
Z  R 2  (L) 2
L 
  tan 1  
 
R

R-L load
Natural response is when source  0,
di(t )
i (t ) R  L 0
d t
which results in :
in (t )  Ae t  ;   L R
Hence
V 
i (t )  i f (t )  in (t )   m   sin(t   )  Ae t 
 Z 
A can be solved by realising inductor current
is zero before the diode starts conducting , i.e :
 Vm  0 
i ( 0)     sin( 0   )  Ae
 Z 
 Vm   Vm 
 A   sin(  )     sin( )
 Z   Z 
Therefore the current is given as,
V 

i (t )   m   sin(t   )  sin( )e t 
 Z 

R-L waveform
vs,
io
b
vo
vR
vL
0 2 t
 3 4
Note :
v L is negative because the current is decreasing , i.e :
di
vL  L
dt
Extinction angle
Note that the diode remains in forward biased
longer tha n  radians (although the source is
negative during that duration)T he point when
current reaches zero is whendiode turns OFF.
This point is known as theextinc tion angle, b .
 Vm 
i(b )  
 Z 

  sin( b   )  sin( )e
 b 
0 
which reduces to :
sin( b   )  sin( )e  b   0
b can only be solved numericall y.
Therefore, the diode conducts between 0 and b
To summarise the rectfier w ith R - L load,

 Vm 
 Z   
sin(  t   )  sin( ) e t 


i (t )  for 0  t  b
0

otherwise
RMS current, Power
The average (DC) current is :
b
1 2 1
Io 
2 0
 i(t )dt  2  i(t )dt
0
The RMS current is :
b
1 2 2 1 2
I RMS   i (t )dt   i (t )dt
2 0 2 0
POWER CALCULATIO N
Power absorbed by the load is :
Po   I RMS 2  R
Power Factor is computed from definition :
P
pf 
S
where P is the real power supplied by the source,
which equal to the power absorbed by the load.
S is the apparent power supplied by the
source, i.e
S  Vs, RMS . I RMS 
P
 pf 
Vs,RMS .I RMS 
Half wave rectifier, R-C Load
+ iD +
vs vo
_ _
Vm vs
 /2  2 3 /2 3 4
Vmax vo
Vmin DVo
iD
a 
Vm sin(t ) w hen diode is ON

vo 
V e t   / RC when diode is OFF
v  Vm sin 

Operation
• Let C initially uncharged. Circuit is

energised at t=0
• Diode becomes forward biased as the

source become positive
• When diode is ON the output is the same

as source voltage. C charges until Vm
• After t=/2, C discharges into load (R).
• The source becomes less than the output

voltage
• Diode reverse biased; isolating the load

from source.
• The output voltage decays exponentially.

Estimation of 
The slope of the functions are :
d Vm sin t 
 Vm cos t
d (t )
and
m
d V sin   e t   / RC 
d (t )
 1  t   / RC
 Vm sin     e
 RC 
At t   , the slopes are equal,
 1     / RC
Vm cos   Vm sin     e
 RC 
V cos  1
 m 
Vm sin   RC
1 1

tan   RC
  tan 1  RC    tan 1 RC   
For practical circuits, RC is large, then :
 
  -tan         
2 2
 is very close to the peak of the sine wave. Therefore
and Vm sin   Vm
Estimation of a
At t  2  a ,
Vm sin( 2  a )  (Vm sin  )e ( 2 a  ) RC
or
sin(a  (sin  )e ( 2 a  ) RC  0
This equation must be solved numericall y for a

Ripple Voltage
Max output vol tage is Vmax .
Min output vol tage occurs at t  2  a
DVo  Vmax  Vmin
 Vm  Vm sin( 2  a )  Vm  Vm sin a
If V  Vm and    2, and C is large such that
DC output vol tage is constant, then a   2.
The output vol tage evaluated at t  2  a is :
 2  2 2   2 
   
vo (2  a )  Vm e   RC   Vm e   RC 
The ripple voltage is approximat ed as :

 2    2  
     
DVo  Vm  Vm e   RC   Vm 1  e  RC 

 
 
 2 
  2
Using Series expansoin : e   RC  1
RC
 2  Vm
 DVo  Vm  
 RC  fRC

Capacitor Current
The current in the capacitor can be expressed as :
dv (t )
ic t   C o
d (t )
In terms of t , :
dv (t )
ic t   C o
d (t )
But
Vm sin(t ) when diode is ON
vo (t )  
Vm sin   e t   / RC when diode is OFF
Then, substituting vo (t ),

CVm cos(t )
when diode is ON,

 i.e (2  a )  t  (2   )


ic t   

 Vm sin   e t   / RC
 R
when diode is OFF,

i.e ( )  t  (2  a )

Peak Diode Current
Note that :
is  iD  iR  iC
The peak diode current occurs at (2  a ). Hence.
I c, peak  CVm cos (2  a )  CVm cos a
Resistor current at (2  a ) can be obtained :

.
Vm sin (2  a ) Vm sin a
iR (2  a )  
R R
The diode peak current is :
Vm sin a
iD, peak  CVm cos a 
R

Example
A half-wave rectifier has a 120V rms source at 60Hz. The
load is =500 Ohm, C=100uF. Assume a and  are calculated
as 48 and 93 degrees respectively. Determine (a) Expression
for output voltage (b) peak-to peak ripple (c) capacitor
current (d) peak diode current.
vs
Vm
 /2  2 3 /2 3 4
Vmax vo
Vmin DVo
iD
a 
Vm  120 2  169 .7V ;
  93o  1.62 rad ;
a  48 o  0.843rad
Vm sin   169 .7 sin(1.62 rad )  169 .5V ;
(a) Output vol tage :

Vm sin(t )  169 .7 sin(t ) (ON)
vo (t )  
Vm sin   e t   / RC (OFF)
169 .7 sin(t ) (ON)

 t 1.62  /(18.85)
169 .5e (OFF)
Example (cont’)
(b)Ripple :
Using : DVo  Vmax  Vmin
DVo  Vm  Vm sin( 2  a )  Vm  Vm sin a  43V
Using Approximat ion :
 2  Vm 169 .7
DVo  Vm     56.7V
 RC  fRC 60  500  100u
(c) Capacitor current :

CVm cos( t ) (ON)

ic t    Vm sin( ) t   /(RC )
 R
e (OFF)
6.4 cos( t ) A (ON)

 t 1.62  /(18.85)
 0.339  e A (OFF)
(d) Peak diode current :

V sin a
iD, peak  CVm cos a  m
R
169 .7 sin(1.62 rad )
 (2    60)(100u )169 .7 cos( 0.843rad ) 
500
 (4.26  0.34)  4.50 A

Controlled half-wave
ig
vs
ia
+ t
+
vs vo
_ _ vo
t
v
ig
a t
Average voltage :
1  Vm
Vo   Vm sin  t d t  1  cos a 
2 a 2
RMS voltage
 2
1
Vo, RMS   Vm sin t  dt
2 a
Vm2  Vm a sin 2a 

  [1  cos( 2 t ] d t  1  
4 a 2  2

Controlled h/w, R-L load
i
+
vR
+ +
_
vs vo
_ +
vL _
_
vs
 2 t
vo
io
b
a
t
V 
i (t )  i f (t )  in (t )   m   sin t     Ae 
 Z 
Initial condition : i a   0,
a
V 
i a   0   m   sin a     Ae 
 Z 
a
 V  
 A    m   sin a    e 
 Z  
Controlled R-L load
Substituti ng for A and simplifyin g,
  (a t ) 
 m   sin t     sin a   e   for a  t  b
V
i t    Z   
  
0 otherwise
Extinction angle b must be solved numericall y
 (a  b ) 
V 
i b   0   m  sin b     sin b   e  
 Z  
 
Angle   b    is called the conduction angel .
Average voltage :
b
1 Vm
   cos a  cos b 
2 a
Vo  Vm sin t d t 
2
Average current :
b
1
Io   it d
2 a
RMS current :
b
1 2
i t d
2 a
I RMS 
The power absorbed by the load :

Po  I RMS 2  R
Examples
1. A half wave rectifier has a source of 120V RMS at 60Hz.
R=20 ohm, L=0.04H, and the delay angle is 45 degrees.
Determine: (a) the expression for i(t), (b) average
current, (c) the power absorbed by the load.
2. Design a circuit to produce an average voltage of 40V

across a 100 ohm load from a 120V RMS, 60Hz supply.
Determine the power factor absorbed by the resistance.

Freewheeling diode (FWD)
• Note that for single-phase, half wave rectifier
with R-L load, the load (output) current is
NOT continuos.
• A FWD (sometimes known as commutation

diode) can be placed as shown below to make
it continuos
io
+
vR
+ +
_
vs vo
_ +
vL _
_
io io
vo= 0
+ vo= vs +
+
vs vo
vo io
_
_
_
D1 is on, D2 is off D2 is on, D1 is off

Operation of FWD
• Note that both D1 and D2 cannot be turned
on at the same time.
• For a positive cycle voltage source,
– D1 is on, D2 is off
– The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure (b)
– The voltage across the R-L load is the same as
the source voltage.
• For a negative cycle voltage source,

– D1 is off, D2 is on
– The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure (c)
– The voltage across the R-L load is zero.
– However, the inductor contains energy from
positive cycle. The load current still circulates
through the R-L path.
– But in contrast with the normal half wave
rectifier, the circuit in Figure (c) does not
consist of supply voltage in its loop.
– Hence the “negative part” of vo as shown in the
normal half-wave disappear.

FWD- Continuous load current
• The inclusion of FWD results in continuos

load current, as shown below.
• Note also the output voltage has no

negative part.
output vo
io
iD1 t
Diode
current
iD2
0  2 3 4

Full wave rectifier
iD1
D1 • Center-tapped
io
D
is 3
(CT) rectifier
+
vs
+ requires
vo
_ _
center-tap
transformer.
D
Full Bridge
Full Bridge 4 D
2 (FB) does not.
is iD1
D1
• CT: 2 diodes
+ + vD1 
vs1 • FB: 4 diodes.
+ _  vo + Hence, CT
vs
_ experienced
+ io
vs2 only one diode
_ + vD2  volt-drop per
iD2 D
half-cycle
Center-tapped 2
For both circuits, • Conduction

losses for CT
Vm sin t 0  t  
vo   is half.
 Vm sin t   t  2
Average (DC) voltage : • Diodes ratings
1 2Vm for CT is twice
Vo   Vm sin t dt   0.637Vm than FB
0 
Bridge waveforms
iD1
io
D1 D3
is
+ +
vs vo
_ _
D4
Full Bridge D2
Vm v
s
 2 3 4
Vm
v
o
vD1 vD2
-Vm
vD3 vD4
-
io
Vm
iD1 iD2
iD3 iD4
i
s

Center-tapped waveforms
is iD1 D1
+ + vD1 
vs1
+  vo +
_
vs
_ + io
vs2
+ vD2 
_
iD2 D
Center-tapped 2
Vm vs
 2 3 4
Vm
vo
vD1
-2Vm
vD2
-2Vm io
iD1
iD2
is

Full wave bridge, R-L load
io
iD1
is +
+ vR +
vs _
_ + vo
vL _
_
vs
 2 t
iD1 , iD2
iD3 ,iD4
io
vo
is

Approximation with large L
Using Fourier Series,

vo (t )  Vo  Vn cos( nt   )
n  2, 4...
where the DC term
2Vm
Vo 

and the harmonics terms
2Vm  1 1 
Vn    
  n  1 n  1
The DC curent
V
Io  o
R
The harmonic currents :
V Vn
In  n 
Z n R  jn L
As n increases, Vn harmonic decreases.
Thus I n decreases rapidly ve ry increasing n.
If L is large enough, it is possible to drop all
the harmonic terms, i.e. :
V 2V
i t   I o  o  m , for L  R,
R R
R-L load approximation
Approximat e current
V 2V
Io  o  m ,
R R
 
I RMS  I o 2   I n, RMS 2  I o
Power delivered to the load :
Po  I RMS 2 R
vs
 2 t
iD1 , iD2
iD3 ,iD4
io
vo
is

Examples
Given a bridge rectifier has an AC source Vm=100V at
50Hz, and R-L load with R=100ohm, L=10mH
a) determine the average current in the load
b) determine the first two higher order harmonics of the
load current
c) determine the power absorbed by the load

Controlled full wave, R load
iD1
T1
io
T3
is
+ +
vs vo
_ _
T4 T2
Average (DC) voltage :

1 Vm
Vo   m
V sin t dt  1  cos a 
a 
RMS Voltage
 2
1
Vo, RMS   Vm sin t  dt
a
1 a sin 2a 
 Vm  
2 2 4
The power absorbed by the R load is :
VRMS 2
Po 
R
Controlled, R-L load io
iD1
is +
vR
+ +
vs
_
_ vo
+
_
vL
_
io
a  b a 2
vo
Discontinuous mode
+a
io
a  b 2
vo
Continuous mode

Discontinuous mode
Analysis similar to controlled half wave with
R - L load :
 Vm 
i (t )     sin(t   )  sin(a   )e (t a ) 
 Z 

for a  t  b
Z  R 2  (L) 2
1  L  L
and   tan   ;  
 R  R
For discontino us mode, need to ensure :
b  (a   )
Note that b is the extinction angle and
must be solved numericall y with condition :
io ( b )  0
The boundary between continous and

discontino us current mode is when b in
the output current expression is (  a ).
For continous operation current at
t  (  a ) must be greater than zero.
Continuous mode
i (  a )  0
sin(  a   )  sin(  a   )e ( a a )   0
Using Trigonomet ry identity :
sin(  a   )  sin(  a ),

sin(  a ) 1  e (  )
 0,
Solving for a
L 
a  tan 1  
 R 
Thus for continuous current mode,
L
a  tan 1  
 R 
Average (DC) output vol tage is given as :
1 a  2Vm
Vo 
  Vm sin t dt  cos a

a

Single-phase diode groups
D1
io
D3 vp
+
vs +
_ vo
D4 _
D2 vn
vo =vp vn
• In the top group (D1, D3), the cathodes (-) of the two
diodes are at a common potential. Therefore, the
diode with its anode (+) at the highest potential will
conduct (carry) id.
• For example, when vs is ( +), D1 conducts id and D3

reverses (by taking loop around vs, D1 and D3).
When vs is (-), D3 conducts, D1 reverses.
• In the bottom group, the anodes of the two diodes

are at common potential. Therefore the diode with
its cathode at the lowest potential conducts id.
• For example, when vs (+), D2 carry id. D4 reverses.

When vs is (-), D4 carry id. D2 reverses.

Three-phase rectifiers
D1
+ van - io
D3
+ vbn - D5
n vpn
+
+ vcn - vo
D2 _
D6 vnn vo =vp vn
D4
van vbn vcn

Vm
vp
Vm
vn
vo =vp - vn
0  2 3 4
Three-phase waveforms
• Top group: diode with its anode at the
highest potential will conduct. The other
two will be reversed.
• Bottom group: diode with the its cathode at

the lowest potential will conduct. The other
two will be reversed.
• For example, if D1 (of the top group)

conducts, vp is connected to van.. If D6 (of the
bottom group) conducts, vn connects to vbn .
All other diodes are off.
• The resulting output waveform is given as:

vo=vp-vn
• For peak of the output voltage is equal to

the peak of the line to line voltage vab .

Three-phase, average voltage
vo
vo
/3
Vm, L-L
0
/3 2/3
Considers only one of the six segments. Obtain

its average over 60 degrees or  3 radians.
Average voltage :
2 3
1
Vo 
 3  Vm,L L sin(t )dt
3
3Vm, L  L
 cos(t )233

3Vm, L  L
  0.955Vm, L  L

Note that the output DC voltage component of
a three - phase rectifier is much higher tha n of a
single - phase.
Controlled, three-phase
T1
+ van - io
T3
+ vbn -
T5 vpn
n
+
+ vcn - vo
T2 _
T6 vnn
T4
a van vbn vcn

Vm
vo

Output voltage of controlled
three phase rectifier
From the previous Figure, let a be the
delay angle of the SCR.
Average voltage can be computed as :
2 3a
1
Vo 
 3  Vm,L L sin(t )dt
3a
 3Vm, L  L 
   cos a
  
• EXAMPLE: A three-phase controlled rectifier has

an input voltage of 415V RMS at 50Hz. The load
R=10 ohm. Determine the delay angle required to
produce current of 50A.


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Chapter 2

Power Electronics and 1

• Basic block diagram

• Input can be single or multi-phase (e.g. 3-

• Applications: DC welder, DC motor drive,

Power Electronics and 2

Output vol tage (DC or average),

Power Electronics and 3

Power Electronics and 4

Therefore the current is given as,

To summarise the rectfier w ith R - L load,

Vm sin(t ) w hen diode is ON

Power Electronics and 9

• Let C initially uncharged. Circuit is

• Diode becomes forward biased as the

• When diode is ON the output is the same

• The source becomes less than the output

• Diode reverse biased; isolating the load

• The output voltage decays exponentially.

Power Electronics and 10

Power Electronics and 12

The ripple voltage is approximat ed as :

Power Electronics and 13

Then, substituting vo (t ),

Power Electronics and 14

Resistor current at (2  a ) can be obtained :

Power Electronics and 15

(a) Output vol tage :

169 .7 sin(t ) (ON)

(c) Capacitor current :

6.4 cos( t ) A (ON)

(d) Peak diode current :

Power Electronics and 17

Vm2  Vm a sin 2a 

Power Electronics and 18

The power absorbed by the load :

2. Design a circuit to produce an average voltage of 40V

Power Electronics and 21

• A FWD (sometimes known as commutation

D1 is on, D2 is off D2 is on, D1 is off

Power Electronics and 22

• For a negative cycle voltage source,

Power Electronics and 23

• The inclusion of FWD results in continuos

• Note also the output voltage has no

Power Electronics and 24

For both circuits, • Conduction

Power Electronics and 26

Power Electronics and 27

Power Electronics and 28

Power Electronics and 30

Power Electronics and 31

Average (DC) voltage :

Power Electronics and 33

The boundary between continous and

Power Electronics and 35

• For example, when vs is ( +), D1 conducts id and D3

• In the bottom group, the anodes of the two diodes

• For example, when vs (+), D2 carry id. D4 reverses.

Power Electronics and 36

D6 vnn vo =vp vn

van vbn vcn