Foundations

of Individual Behavior

1
 Learning Objectives

• Define key biographical characteristics

• Identify two types of ability
• Shape the behavior of others
• Examine four schedules of reinforcement
• Clarify the role of punishment in learning
• Practice self-management
• Exhibit effective discipline skills

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 Biographical
Characteristics

Age Gender

Tenure Race/caste

3
 Intellectual Abilities

• Number aptitude
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Memory ability

4
Basic Physical Abilities

Strength Other Flexibility

Factors Factors Factors

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 The Ability-Job Fit

•Abilities of the employee

•Requirements of the job

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 Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.

Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
What Is Learning?
Social
Learning

Classical Operant
Conditioning Conditioning

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 Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.

Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct
experience.

Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
 Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired
behavior occurs.
Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable
behavior.
Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation.

2–12
 Following a response Following a response by the
with something termination or withdrawal of
pleasant something unpleasant

Positive Negative
Reinforcement Reinforcement

Methods of
Shaping Behavior

Punishment Extinction

Causing an unpleasant Eliminating any

condition in an attempt to reinforcement that is
eliminate an undesirable maintaining a behaviour
behaviour
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 Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is
demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to
make the behavior worth repeating but not every
time it is demonstrated.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All

rights reserved. 2–14
 Intermittent Reinforcement
• Can be
Ratio – ratio schedules depend on how many
responses the subject makes.
Interval – interval schedules depend on how much
time has passed since the previous reinforcement.
Fixed – when rewards are spaced at uniform time
interval.
Variable – when rewards are distributed acc. to an
unpredictable schedule.

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 Schedules of Reinforcement
(cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant
number of responses.
 Behavior Modification
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts
to individuals in the work setting.

Five Step Problem-Solving Model

1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
 Schedules of Reinforcement
after a fixed number
rewards are
of responses are
spaced at uniform
given, a reward is
time intervals
Interval Ratio initiated

Fixed- Fixed-
Interval Ratio
Variable

Variable- Variable-
Interval Ratio

reinforcements are in a variable-ratio schedule, reward varies

unpredictable relative to the behavior of the individual
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 Behavior Modification
• Critical behaviors

• Baseline data

• Behavioral consequences

• Intervention strategy

• Performance improvement

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 Organizational Applications
• Lotteries to reduce absenteeism
• Well pay versus sick pay
• Employee discipline
• Training programs
• Mentoring programs
• Self-management

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 Physical Abilities
• Strength factors –
– Dynamic strength – ability to exert muscular force
repeatedly or continuously over time.
– Trunk strength – ability to exert muscular strength using
the trunk (particularly abdominal )muscles.
– Static strength – ability to exert force against external
objects.
– Explosive strengths – ability to expend a maximum of
energy in one or a series of explosive acts.

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 Flexibility Factors
• Extent flexibility – ability to move the trunk and back
muscles as far as possible.
• Dynamic flexibility – ability to make rapid, repeated
flexing movements.
Other Factors –
– Body coordination – ability to coordinate actions of different
parts of the body.
– Balance – ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces
pulling one off balance.
– Stamina – ability to continue maximum effort requiring
prolonged effort over time.

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