Chapter 17

Second Language Reading

Development and
Instruction

© A n g e la S t- G e rm a in , S e p te m b e r
2010
L1 Readers
*Click on the images as they appear to hear more about key phrase to
which it is attached.

*After each sound bite, exit from the webpage to return to the

presentation.


• Research says:
– Reading is a process of 6 skills
1.autorecognition
2.knowledge of vocabulary and structure
3.knowledge of formal discourse and
structure
4.prior knowledge of content and world
5.evaluation and synthesis skills 2
Why does L1 research
matter if we are
teaching ESL?
• Understanding what fluent readers do
directly impacts how we teach
second language learners.
• Skills that we use in our first language
transferto our second (third, fourth,
etc.) language; therefore, how we
read in our first language impacts
how we will read/learn to read in
another language.
3
 Interactive Reading
Approach
• Reading is:
– an active and constructive process.
– NOT a passive process.
– a combination of 3 skills:
• automatic processing skills
• comprehension skills
• reasoning skills


• This approach combines 3 models of reading:

– Cognitive
– Psycholinguistic
– Sociolinguistic


 These concepts will be explained in the following 4

slides.
Psycholinguistics

from:
http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_us1281544#m_en_us1281544 5
Psycholinguistics
• Reading is interactive and active.
• Readers use 3 cueing systems to
construct meaning:
– syntactic
• What do I, the reader, know about how
language works?
– semantic
• What do I already know about this
concept?
– The readers past experiences and
background knowledge
– graphophonic 6
Psycholinguistics

• Ultimately, in order to construct meaning, the

reader chooses and uses the most relevant
information from these 3 systems.
• Example
– A student reads the following sentence:
• Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun.
– He knows something about Jupiter and the sun
(background knowledge = semantic cue)
– He can sound out the words “fifth” and “planet”
(graphophonic cues)


– Using 2 of the cueing systems, the student is

able to understand the whole meaning of
the sentence, even though he may not
understand each word in isolation. 7

Sociolinguistics

from: http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_us1292033#m_en_us1292033
8
 Sociolinguistics

• Language is social and conveys

meaning.
• Reading involves both the reader and
the writer.
• Proficient readers are able to “see” the
writer’s thoughts, or figurative
message, in spite of the more literal,
printed
and sociolinguistic message.
concepts were posited by Kenneth S. Goodman in the 19
ding added that Goodman’s model was a combination of top - down and bott
•
9
Top-Down or Bottom-
Up
 Imagine a Pyramid

If you are at the top, you

have seen everything –
you have the “big
picture.” You can use the
knowledge that you have.
own

- Up
- D

om
If you are at the
bottom, you have

tt
Top

work to do before

Bo
you can get that
picture. You have
to build your
knowledge.

10
 Top-Down or Bottom-
Up
 Or think about this:

I will learn about the individual pieces

is and I will learn all of the parts of the
build understanding about cars.
cars better. own

- Up
- D

om
gas pedal + brakes

t
+

t
Top

Bo
wipers + headlights
+
dashboard + steering
wheel
+
tires + radio, etc. 11
 How does that relate
to teaching reading?
Top-Down
 B o tto m - U p
Teaching Te a ch in g
• Teachers emphasize • To ease the learning
meaning by creating process, Teachers
lessons requiring segment the large
students to: reading task into small
– use background components
knowledge
– use text mapping – Letter and word
strategies identification
– preview text – Letter/sound
– understand and discuss correspondence
key vocabulary – Phrase identification
 – Reading in meaning
chunks

 12

So what…
To summarize so far:


• L1 and L2 reading is similar

• L2 readers use all of their knowledge (print,
sound, discourse, semantics, grammar) to
build meaning while they read.
• SO Background knowledge affects the readers
interpretation of what they read. Which
means that…
 … A PERSONAL CONNECTION

PRECEEDS THE AUTHORS INTENDED

MEANING. *


 *This differs from how many of us 13

 A Theory

SCHEMA RESEARCH THEORY

14
Schema Research
Theory
• Background knowledge is important
• Reader – centered model
• Texts provide direction for
interpretation, but it is the reader who
brings the background knowledge ,
or schemata

– Formal
• text structures and genres
– Content
• knowledge of the context

15
Schema Research
Theory
• Children show, early on, that they
understand story grammar, or the
main components of the story.
– Characters
– Problem
– Action
– Outcome


16
Schema Research
Theory
• Understanding text structure is
important.
– Text structures facilitate
comprehension because they
enable use of reading skills:
• Predicting
• Summarizing
• Locating information
• Message Recall
17
Schema Research
Theory

• Narrative texts are usually easier than

expository texts because…
– …narrative texts usually have
familiar content.
– …expository texts have a more
complex structure and often use
various structures in the same
text.
– …expository texts tend to use
complicated grammatical 18
Schema Research
Theory
• Patterns in Expository Texts
– Attributive
• Main ideas are followed by supporting
details
– Compare/Contrast
• Similarities and differences are identified
and evaluated.
– Cause/Effect
• A cause and effect relationship is
established and discussed.
– Problem/Solution
• A problem is identified and solved, or
possible solutions are given.
19
Schema Research
Theory
How can I use this knowledge to help
ELLs become proficient readers?
*Teach students how to identify and use

cohesive ties. These are KEY to

navigating confusing or difficult text and
grammatical structures.
*Use concept maps or other graphic

organizers (pp. 250-251) to teach

structures and facilitate comprehension.
*Be flexible and use teachable

moments when they present themselves.

20
 Rosenblatt

TRANSACTIONAL THEORY OF
READING
21
Transactional Theory of
Reading
• Neither the text nor the reader “has”
the meaning.
• The meaning comes with the
transaction between the reader and
the text that s/he is reading.
• 2 differing reader approaches or
attitudes:
– Efferent
– Aesthetic

22
Transactional Theory of
Reading
• Efferent stance
– Focus is on getting information.
– Solving an equation, reading instructions,
etc.
• Aesthetic stance
– Focus is on experiencing the text.
– Literature often requires thought and
reflection about one’s self resulting in an
aesthetic stance.
– Promoting an aesthetic stance is important.
– Reader’s may take one or both stances at
the same time. They also may change
stance based on task requirement and/or23
 Making Connections

READING & WRITING

24
Reading & Writing
• Reading Writing
– There are similar patterns and skills
used in both processes.
• To make meaning, both “activate
schemata” about…
– language
– content
– form
• Skills applied include
– phonics
– syntax
– text genres
– conventions

25
Reading & Writing
• Reading Writing
– Good readers form ideas and opinions
while they are reading
• Their writing can be based on these ideas
and opinions.
– Research on ELLs also shows a
reciprocal relationship between
reading and writing 
– Understanding of the structure of texts
and choosing how to write varies
from culture to culture.
• Knowing this, ELLs who study the
rhetoric of the English language
will be able to better understand 26
 The Interactive Perspective

WHY SHOULD ESL TEACHERS

CARE?
27
The Interactive
Perspective
• It identifies qualities of good readers
- this is equally
– AND those of poor readers
• It identifies bottom-up im and
p o rta n t!
top-down
skills needed for comprehension and
interpretation.
• It implies that both high and low-level
skills are fundamental to good
reading.
• It shows that reading is a combination
of linguistic analysis and
comprehension strategies. 28
 Another Perspective

SOCIAL-INTERACTIONIST
PERSPECTIVE
29
Social-Interactionist
Perspective
• Learning language is a social process.
• Lev Vygotsky – 1978 Russian
psychologist
– Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
• Through interaction, learners move—
progress—from where they are now
(the zone of actual development) to
where they CAN be (the zone of
potential development).
• In order to progress, learners need
constant guidance and stimulation
using “RELEVANT and PERTINENT
knowledge of the world and vocabulary30
 Literacy Instruction

CRITICAL READING AND

THINKING
31
CRITICAL READING AND
THINKING
• ELLs
– CAN handle the content – if it is made accessible to
them.
– are expected to function in a highly literate,
technological society.
– must be able to think critically, choose important
information and evaluate input in order to make
judgments
• Teachers must
– break the COMPLEX academic content into smaller
components.
– use scaffolded strategies
– teach, use and facilitate the use of 32
The Role of Questions in
Comprehension and
Critical Thinking
• Because questions guide students’
understanding and interpretation of texts,
we (teachers) MUST carefully plan
questions.
– Low-level questions…
• …ask students to recall information that has been
learned
• Examples:
– Who is the main character?
– What formula do we use to find perimeter?
– High-level questions…
• …require students to go beyond what is directly
presented in the text.
• Examples: 33
– The main character’s best friend died. If you died
Questioning ELLs

• Teachers can structure for success by

– asking high and low-level questions.
– recognizing the students abilities…
• …with content knowledge
• …with the language itself (Lg.
proficiency)
– focusing on meaningful and relevant
concepts.
– using clear language and scaffolding
strategies to make questions
comprehensible. 34
 WHY…

…IS READING DIFFICULT FOR

L2 LEARNERS?
35
Why is it difficult?
• Second Language (L2) readers lack
– L2 proficiency
– relevant background knowledge/experience in
reference to the text
• Think about:
– lack of socio-cultural knowledge
– lack of vocabulary and grammatical structures
in L2
– negative transfer (interference)
• This happens when the learner uses
vocabulary (false cognates) or
grammatical structures from the L1 but
it doesn’t work in the L2.
• This can be frustrating and cause
confusion because, often, transfer works
and makes reading easier (especially for
students who already have an academic 36
More difficulties…
• Orthographic systems
– If they come from a logographic system
(Chinese),
• the English symbols are brand new
• they are not used to using graphophonics
in addition to context to understand
meaning
– If they come from a syllabic system
(Japanese),
• they are used to symbols representing
syllables – English symbols, letters,
represent individual sounds.
– If they come from an alphabetic system
(Russian), 37
…and even more
difficulties.
• Social contexts vary from culture to
culture
– In their culture, are they allowed to
question or reinterpret the “truth”
that they read in books?
– What are their expectations for using
literacy?

38
BUT…there are
advantages!
• Students with an academic background
already have a large vocabulary base
in the L1 so vocabulary acquisition
will be easier.
• These students also have conceptual
knowledge so can concentrate on the
language itself – not always both the
content and the language.
• Motivation is high in at least one of the
2 areas. 39
How can we help?
• Congratulations – you are already 1
step closer to helping your students! You
are AWARE of difficulties and willing to
do something about it!
• We can:
– provide necessary background
knowledge.
– preview texts for unfamiliar structures and
vocabulary. Then modify it as needed to
make it comprehensible to the reader.
– expose students to various structures and
expressions and cease teachable
moments to familiarize students with
them.
– plan meaningful activities relevant to our40
 Are needs being met?

CHARACTERISTICS OF
READERS
41
Beginners
• They are probably unfamiliar with our
alphabet and must be taught to read left
to right.
• They must learn and understand
sound/symbol correspondence.
• They need to develop a larger sight
vocabulary.
• They can understand short, simple texts
with predictable structures.
• For some, regardless of age, this may be
their first experience with reading
and/or writing. They will need many
opportunities to develop these skills.
• Students will need to understand the
42
Strategies for Teaching
Beginner Readers
• The Language Experience Approach
(LEA)
– …is easier for beginner readers.
– …helps learners feel like part of a
community.
– …is easy for parents and home literacy
activities.
– …allows learners to use their personal
experiences
– …Lets learners dictate their experience to
the teacher.
– …require that the teacher write the story
and then uses it to instruct reading.
– …uses 4 skills + 1
• Reading, Writing, Listening, Speaking (+1 – 43
Strategies for Teaching
Beginner Readers
• LEA
– 2 Approaches to recording dictated
experiences
• Record student’s exact words with minimal
rephrasing
– Shows acceptance of student’s language
– Minimizes chance of student reading
unfamiliar language
• Record student’s words, but correct
mispronounced words
– Reinforces graphophonic awareness
– Draws on student’s culture so they read texts
with familiar and personally interesting
content
» Good foundation for L2 literacy. 44
Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
• LEA – Steps (brief overview)
1.Class shares/talks about shared personal
experiences.
2.Teacher encourages contributions to
dictated story.
3.Students read and discuss their story. They
can make revisions as they go along
(usually after teacher models
technique).
4.Teacher encourages choral reading, then
echo reading (each student gets to read
a section independently).
5.Teacher uses the story in activities that 45
Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
• Reading Aloud
– Benefits all ages and abilities
– Makes reading fun
– Models good reading practices
– “Assists students in developing print
concepts, phonics knowledge, sight
vocabulary and comprehension.”
– Should consist of texts with predictable
structures and supporting graphics.
– Can connect to and support (or be
supported by) themed units being
taught.
46
Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
• Reading Aloud
– Teachers should model good reading
practices
• How to hold a book
• Directionality of reading
• Pre-reading activities – questioning,
predicting, etc.
• During reading activities – predicting,
thinking aloud, clarifying, etc.
• Appropriate language patterns (teacher or
taped reading)
– Teachers can support comprehension and
listening.
• Choose several words and substitute them
while reading. 47
Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
• Choral Reading
– …encourages participation in dramatic
activities.
– …is good for introducing vocabulary
words, sentence and language
patterns.
– …are best when the text has repeated
structures and patterns.
– …works well when accompanied by
graphic aids and other forms of visual
support.


 *Be careful with texts that have nonsense48

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
• Literature Circles
– …are discussion groups.
– …allow for student choice, although teacher
can choose for ability level.
– …work well in cooperative learning groups.
– …are usually 5-6 students reading the same
text but at various proficiency levels.
– …keep students accountable through individual
group roles while practicing good reading
strategies
• Discussion leader
• Summarizer
• Reporter
• Illustrator
• Word chief
• Connector 49
Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
• Shared Reading with Big Books
– …allows the students to read big books
along with the teacher.
– …uses oversized, colorfully illustrated
books with 1-3 sentences per page.
– …has predictable structures and language
patterns.
– …allows students to buy or make their
books.
– …allows students to write their own
versions of a book.
– …allows students to engage in fun 50
activities while learning to read and write,
Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
• Thematic Units
– …organize instruction around a central
idea.
– …necessitate student-teacher
collaboration and inquiry and allow for
holistic assessment.
– …has several advantages.
• Cross-curricular content helps students
make connections and use higher order
thinking.
• Helps students see connections across
the span of literacy objectives (read,
51
write, listen, speak, think)
Intermediate
Readers…
• …are more fluent, although not quite
proficient.
• …have larger vocabulary.
• …are familiar with a wider variety of
texts.
• …still require extensive work in reading
and writing, although they may speak
fluently and be able to discuss their
texts.
• …need scaffolded instruction and
52
support with new vocabulary and
Strategies for Teaching

Intermediate Readers
• Directed Reading-Thinking Activity
(DR-TA)
– …coaches students to make connections
between printed material and
meaning.
– …requires that students respond to
questions in specified segments of the
texts.
– …helps develop good reading strategies.
– …can be used with narrative and
expository texts. 53
Strategies for Teaching

Intermediate Readers
• Graphic Organizers
– …help students understand what they
read.
– …facilitate comprehension of difficult
expository texts.
– …can be used during all stages of the
reading process.
– …allow students to see hierarchy and
connections within texts.
– …enhance student learning and higher
level thinking. 54
Strategies for Teaching

Intermediate Readers
• Learning Logs/Journals
– …encourage students to think, write and
reflect about what they read.
– …allow for real world discussion,
clarification, and evaluation of
concepts in the text.
– …can be as structured or unstructured
as the teacher wishes.

55
 Literature Selection

SELECTING APPROPRIATE
MATERIALS FOR ESL
READERS 56
Appropriate Literature
for ELLs
• Reminder
– ESL students lack knowledge of academic language
– The material chosen by the teacher matters!
* See pages 274 - 279 for specific
• Suggested criteria*
examples .
– Introduce language components in L2.
– Begin with predictable patterns and structures.
– Use multicultural and global resources.
– Scaffold presentation – don’t start with the most difficult
first!
– Offer a variety of genres (reading and writing).
– Differentiate for learner differences.
– Encourage independent reading.
– Notice students’ level of background knowledge.
– Use real-world materials.
– Use content area materials/textbooks.
– Use materials with illustrations.
57
–
 Assessment!

READING ASSESSMENTS

58
Assessment
• Reading is a developmental process
– Integration of reading, writing and
language arts
• Norm-Referenced tests are not enough
• Need alternative, authentic
* See pages 279 - 292 for
assessments* examples .

– Anecdotal records
– Informal reading inventory
– Miscue analysis
– Self-assessment
– Running records 59
Assessment
• Anecdotal Records
– Observation notes
– Can be spontaneous or planned
– Can record information that would not
show on a test
– Identifies quality of comprehension,
strategies, difficulties and successes
– Checklists can be tuned to individual
students and are easy for teachers to
use.
– Good for behavioral issues as well
60
Assessment
• Informal Reading Inventory
– Records errors in oral reading and
comprehension
– Determines students’ reading levels
– Good placement test
– Consist of read aloud and silent reading
passages
– Begin at low level and keep reading
higher texts until reach independent
reading level
– ELLs need extra consideration when
61
scoring – Are the “errors” getting in
Assessment
• Miscue Analysis
– another test to identify oral reading errors
– Steps
• Student does a cold read of grade level text
(no more than 200 words)
• Teacher has a photocopy of the text a tape
recorder.
• Teacher instructs student in procedure and
student reads then teacher asks questions
to assess comprehension.
• Student can listen to him/herself on the tape.
• Teacher can go back and analyze the taped
reading to check for miscues.
• Miscues are analyzed for their role in student
comprehension of text.
• Only errors that interfere with meaning are
counted, although other errors can be 62
Assessment
• Self-Assessment
– Metacognitive knowledge often neglected
in assessment
– Research shows that students who engage
in self-assessment are more successful.
– Helps with goal-setting.
– Can be discussed in groups and with the
teacher.
– Multiple forms:
• Checklists
• Rubrics
• Sentence completion
• Learning logs
63
• Reflection logs/journals
Assessment
• Running Records
– Informal assessment
– Oral reading errors determine:
• Word recognition skills
• Strategies used by reader
• Appropriateness of material (level of
reader)
– Texts usually 100-200 words
– Teachers select text or student can
choose
– Teachers DO NOT have a copy of student
text
– Teachers take notes to assess students’ 64
 Things to
Remember
*ESL students acquire
language in many ways like
first language learners.
*ESL students bring all of

their past experiences to the

table (classroom  ) with
them. These experiences can
be used to help students
read, write, speak and listen.
*Never “dumb down” the

content for your students.

They want to be respected
and valued for the knowledge
that they do have. You simply
have to make the language
accessible to them – this
takes work, but is well worth
your time when your students
are proud of their language
use!
*Being an ESL teacher is a

positive, rewarding
experience and worth every 65
minute that you put into it!