PRODUCTION OPERATION

& PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

PROGRAM PENDIDIKAN BPS PT PERTAMINA EP TAHUN 2013

AKHMAD TRI BUDI PRABOWO – PRODUCTION MANAGER

Jakarta, 7 Februari 2013

Bangkitkan Energi Negeri

CONFIDENTIAL AND PROPRIETARY

Any use of this material without specific permission of PT Pertamina EP is strictly prohibited
0
AGENDA

• TUJUAN
• PRODUCTION OPERATION & PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
1. Production Operation & Facilities
2. Well Completion design
3. Nodal Analysis, Well performance prediction and
analysis
4. Artificial lift
5. Problem wells
6. Paraffins and asphaltenes
7. Sand control

1
AGENDA

8. Formation damage & Stimulation

9. Scale deposition, removal, chemical treatment
10. Oilfield corrosion control
11. Production Measurement

• PENUTUP

2
TUJUAN

• Pemahaman mengenai desain sumur, maintenance dan

berbagai metoda perawatan sumur (Well Service)
• Mengembangkan konsep yang terintegrasi tentang desain
sumur dan diagnosa-evaluasi masalah sumuran
• Pendekatan logis untuk pemecahan masalah-masalah di
lapangan
BAGIAN 1

PRODUCTION OPERATION &

FACILITIES
Tinjauan Industri Migas

Tiga Aliran Minyak dan

Gas Utama :
• Reservoir
• Sumur (Casing /
tubing)
• Permukaan/Surface
(Flowlines / Treating)
PRODUCTION FACILITY
FLOWLINES, PIPING & GATHERING SYSTEM
FLOWLINES, MANIFOLD & PIPING

• Peralatan yang digunakan untuk mengirimkan fluida

terproduksi dari kepala sumur ke Fasilitas Pengolah
(Treating)
• Piping MANIFOLD
• Connections
• Valves
• Fittings
• Flowlines : biasanya 2” s.d. 16”
• API Steel Line
• Pipe
• Closed conduit
• Circular cross sections
• Constant internal diameter (ID)
PIPELINE SIZING

• Pertimbangkan Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity

• Batasan Noise/Korosi/Erosi Terkait dengan Ukuran Flowline 
• Mencegah terbentuknya cairan Internal Diameter
dalam Pipa Gas
• Mencegah terbentuknya padatan • Diameter Besar Fluida
dalam Pipa Cairan
• Menahan Tekanan dari Dalam bergerak lebih pelan
(Internal Pressure)
• Ketebalan Dinding Pipa dan
• Diameter lebih kecil Fluida
Kekuatan Material
• Minimalisasi Pressure Drop bergerak lebih cepat
• Meminimalkan Biaya
Pompa/Kompresi
• Optimalisasi Biaya yang terinstall
Bagaimana jika Pipa terlalu kecil?

• Kecepatan alir terlalu tinggi

• Noise
• Erosi
• Pressure Drop terlalu besar

• Solusinya ?
• Turunkan laju produksi
• Gunakan Pipa yang lebih besar
Bagaimana jika Pipa terlalu besar?

• Kecepatan alir terlalu rendah

• Pembentukan Cairan dan Padatan
di dalam Pipa

• Solusinya ?
• Naikkan laju produksi
• Gunakan Pipa yang lebih kecil
• Lakukan Pigging pada pipa
Pipeline Pigging System

• Pipeline Internal Gauge

• Mengecek Kondisi Pipa bagian
dalam
– Pembersihan :
Wax/Paraffin/Padatan
– Cek Deformasi/Korosi/Erosi
– Cek/Ambil halangan/gangguan
• Intelligent PIGS
• Mengukur Ketebalan Dinding pipa
• Memberikan : lokasi dan tipe
kerusakan/cacat pipa
Kriteria Ukuran Pipa

• Cairan : Max = 15 ft/sec Min = 3 ft/sec

(Noise & Erosi) (Solids Buildup)
𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝑸𝑩𝑷𝑫
𝒅 =
𝒗
• Gas : Max = 60 ft/sec Min = 10-15 ft/sec
(Noise & Erosi) (Liquid Buildup)
𝟐
𝟔𝟎 𝑸𝑴𝑴𝑪𝑭𝑫 𝑻𝒛
𝒅 =
𝑷𝒗
• 2 Fasa : Max = 60 ft/sec (Noise, Korosi, Erosi)
(50 ft/sec with CO2)
Min = 10 – 15 ft/sec (Minimize slugs)
𝟐
𝟏𝟏. 𝟗 + 𝑹 𝒛 𝑻 𝑸𝑩𝑳𝑷𝑫
𝒅 = R = GLR, scf/bbl
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒗
Kecepatan Erosi pada Aliran yang mengandung
Padatan

• Minimum Laju alir untuk Menghindari Erosi : Tidak diketahui

Produksi Pasir Formasi Erosi pada peralatan permukaan

Pencegahan Erosi pada Aliran yang mengandung
Padatan
• Gunakan Sand Probes
• Ukur/inspeksi Ketebalan Dinding Pipa
• Gunakan 3+ feet Pipa Lurus setelah Choke/Belokan
• Gunakan Long Radius Ells atau Target Tees
• Monitor Padatan dengan Sand Detectors
• Kontrol Produksi Padatan (Solid Control)
• Pindahkan Padatan dari Aliran (Desander)

TARGET TEE
Flowline Internal Pressure

• Semua Pipa, koneksi, valve dan fitting harus mampu

menahan tekanan internal maksimum yang mungkin terjadi
atau yang dilingkupi oleh sistem pressure relieving
• Flowline Design Pressure : API Oilfield Piping Standards;
ANSI B31.8 Distribution Piping
• Faktor yang mempengaruhi :
• API Minimum Specified Yield Strength (Jenis Pipa/Pipe Grade)
• Construction Type Design Factor (ANSI B.31.8)
– Oilfield &Sparsely Populated Area
– Semi developed areas and Lease Facilities
– Commercial & Residential Sub-Divided Areas & Compressor Stations
– Heavily Congested Areas with Multi-Story Buildings
• Temperature Derating Factor
Minimimize Pressure Drop

• Faktor yang mempengaruhi :

• Flowrate
• Friction factor di dalam pipa
sepanjang pipa
• Flow regimes di dalam pipa
(Laminar/Transisi/Turbulen)
• Perubahan Elevasi
• Valves, Fittings  Panjang
Ekivalen
Oil, Water and Gas Treating Equipment

PRODUKSI DI WELLHEAD PROSES PRODUK AKHIR

MINYAK SALES OIL

PRODUCTION
FACILITIES :
- Gas – Liquid
GAS PIPELINE GAS
Separation
- Liquid – Liquid
Separation DISPOSIBLE
UNWANTED FLUIDS
--------------------------------- QUALITY WATER
- Gas Conditioning
- Oil Treatment
UNWANTED FLUIDS - Water Clean Up SOLIDS
DESKRIPSI FLUIDA DI WELLHEAD

• Komposisi & Sifat-sifat (properties) Fluida

• Karakteristik P-V-T
• Tendensi terjadinya Emulsi/Foaming
• Air/Mineral/Padatan terproduksi
• Profil Produksi/Laju Alir : rata-rata dan puncak produksi
• Temperatur dan Tekanan
• Kontaminan
• Rentang Ketidakpastian
Tipikal Spesifikasi Produk
• MINYAK BS&W < 0.5 – 3 %-V
Temperatur > Pour Point
Salt < 10 – 25 lb/1000 bbls
• GAS Water Content : 2-7 lb/MMCF
Dew Point ± 32ºF at 1000 psi
H2S < 4 ppm
CO2 < 1 – 3 %-v
O2 < 0.4 %-v
Heating value > 950 btu/scf

• WATER Oil Content < 15-40 ppm

Solids < 1 lb/100 bbls
Blok Diagram Fasilitas Produksi - Sederhana

H.P
DEHYDRATION SALES
M.P

L.P
COMPRESSION

SEPARATION OIL TREATING SALES

WATER
DISPOSAL
TREATING
Blok Diagram Fasilitas Produksi - Kompleks

Acid Gas Sulfur

Removal Flare
Sulfur Transport

Gas Compression /
Condensate
Treating Dehydration Pipeline /
Removal
Reinjection /
Condensate Flare

Stabilization Storage/Pipeline

Oil
Well- Phase Dehydration H2S
Gathering Stabilization Storage/Pipeline
head Separation / Desalting Removal

Water Softening /
Skimming Filtration Disposal/Reinjection
Deaeration

Sand
Cleanup Disposal
SEPARATOR
• Bejana Bertekanan
• Digunakan untuk Memisahkan
Fluida Sumuran menjadi Fasa Gas
(Vapor) dan Cairan
• Biasanya merupakan Bejana
Pemroses Awal
• Harus dapat menangani Slugs
(Cairan) atau Heads (Gas)
• Ukuran Bejana disesuaikan
dengan Laju Alir yang akan
ditangani (Instataneous Flow
Rates)
Nomenklatur
• Remove Gas from Liquid
• Two-Phase Separator
• Oil & Gas Separator
• Liquid – Gas Separator
• Flash Vessel
• Expansion Vessel
• Separate Gas-Oil-Water
• Three-Phase Separator
• Very High Gas/Liquid Ratio
• Scrubber
• Trap
• Very High Water Volume
• Free Water Knockout
• Knockout Drum
• Knockout Trap
• Slug Catcher
Tipe-tipe Separator
SEPARATOR 2 FASA SEPARATOR 3 FASA
SEPARATOR OPERATION

• Higher Pressure  More

Liquid Recovery (Less Gas
Volume leaving Separator as
Vapor)
• Too High:
– “Lights” Captured in Liquid, then
lost from stock tank
– Less Production from wells due to
additional back-pressure
• Too Low :
– “Intermediates” Lost to Gas
– Less Oil Recovered.
PARTIAL PRESSURE

• Tendency of a component to flash to vapor depends on its

partial pressure
• Flashes when partial pressure Low
𝑽𝑶𝑳 𝑭𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵 𝑰
𝒑𝒑𝒊 = 𝑿 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂
σ 𝑽𝑶𝑳 𝑭𝑹𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑺
• At High P  High pp  More Liquid
• Lots of “Lights”  Lower pp of Intermediantes
(Intermediates More Likely to Flash
and be Lost to Gas Phase)
STAGE SEPARATION
How Separator Work?

Removing Gas From Liquid

• Enlarged Space
• Lower Fluid Velocity
• Impingement of Liquid
• Change of Flow Direction
• Bubble Extraction from oil
Section
• Retention Time
• Agitation / Baffling
• Heat
• Chemicals
 Horizontal Separator
ADVANTAGE
• Smaller & less expensive at
capacity
• Greater gas/liquid interface area
• Better at Three-Phase Separation
• Greater liquid capacity (no surges)
• Droplet flow not in opposition to
gas flow
• Easier maintenance
• Easier to skid-mount
• Phisically more stable
• Stackable
• Can handle gas “heads”
DISADVANTAGE
• Handling of Solids
• Overcome with addition of Extra
Clean-Outs
• Larger Footprint
• May Matter Offshore
• May Overcome by Stacking
• Less liquid Surge Capacity
• High liquid level Shut-down
closer to normal operating level
Vertical Separator

Advantages :
• Very low GLR : Mainly
Liquids
• Very High GLR : Mist Flow
• Clean-out of solids easier
• Smaller footprint
• Better liquid surge
capacity
• Liquid lever more
adjustable
Water Separator
• Three-Phase Separator
• Vessel Designed to Separate Free Water from Oil/Water Stream
• Also separates Produced or Flashed Gas
– Typically Sized for gas Capacity and (Secondarily) Liquid Capacity

 Free-Water Knockout
(FWKO)
 Huge amount of water in
stream
 Sized for Oil/Water Retention
Times
 Remove Large % of Water
 Send Rest of Water+Oil+Gas to
Separator
How Conventional Separators Work

• Inlet Diverter : Abrupt change in direction and Velocity

• Retention Time :
• Liquid Section
– Entrained gas evolves and rises
– Water falls thru Oil
– Oil rises thru water
– Surge and slug handling
• Vapor Section
– Entrained liquid droplets fall out
• Baffles / Wave breakers
• Coalescing Section : Mist Extractor
• Control Valves : Vessle Pressure and Liquid Level Controls
• Vortex Breaker
Inlet Diverter
Retention Time: tr

• Calculated time a molecule is in the vessel

𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑼𝑴𝑬 𝑶𝒇 𝑷𝑯𝑨𝑺𝑬 𝑰𝒏 𝑽𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑬𝑳
𝒕𝒓 =
𝑭𝑳𝑶𝑾𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑬 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑷𝑯𝑨𝑺𝑬

 Gas – Liquid Separation : 30  Liquid – Liquid Separation :

seconds to 4 minutes 3 to 30 minutes
Baffles/Surge Plates Wave Breakers
Mist Extractor

Wire Mist Extractors

• Sized for Proper Velocity
Range
• Too High : Re-entrainment
• Too Low : Drifts thru without
impingement
• Usually 4-10 inches thick
• ~ 10 pounds of mesh per
cubic foot
• Removes ~ 99% > 10
• More easily plugged with
paraffins
Vortex Breaker
Factors Affection Separator Design

• Gas and liquid flowrates : Minimum, Average, Peak

• Operating Temperature and Pressure
• Surge Volumes and Slugs
• Fluid Properties
• Impurities : Sand, Scale, Paraffing, Solids
• Foaming Tendency/Emulsions
• Corosiveness / Toxicity
Safety Features: Oil & Gas Separators
• Liquid Level Control : High and Low
• Throttle or Shut-in Inlet
• Open By-Pass
• Pressure Controls : high and Low
• Warning Alarm
• Shut-In
• By-Pass
• Temperature Controls : High and Low
• Optional – for Operational Efficiency
• Safety Relief Valve : at Design Pressure
• Pilot Operated or Spring Loaded
• Pressure Safety Elements : Full Capacity Relief
• Set at 1.15 to 1.5 times the Design Pressure
• Rupture Disk or 2nd Relief Valve
Rupture Disk

• Thin Diaphragm between Flanges

• Calibrated to Burst at Specificied Pressure – Usually at
115% MWAP Up to 150%
• Convex (as viewed from Low Pressure Side)
• Does Not Reseal – Must be replaced
• Material Usually : Aluminum, Monel, Stainless Steel
Relief Valve and Vessel Pressure Vocabulary

• MAWP : Maximum Allowable Working Pressure

• Highest Pressure to be Placed on System During Operations
• Also referred to as :
– Design Pressure
– Working Pressure of Vessel
• Relief Valve Pressure Setting at MWAP

• NOP : Normal Operating Pressure

• Anticipated Process Operating Pressure or Pressure Range
• Used when sizing Pipelines and Equipment
• Lower than MWAP
Relief Valve and Vessel Pressure Settings
Additional Oil Treatment
Emulsions
• Small Droplets of Water Dispersed
in Oil Stabilized by Emulsifying
Agents
• Paraffin, Asphaltenes, Sediments,
Pipe Scale, Corossion By-Products,
Spent Acid, Debris
• Broken in Surface Equipment by:
• Heat
• Chemicals (De-Emulsifiers, Solvents)
– Attraction to O/W interface
– Flocculation
– Coalescence
– Solids Wetting
• Electric Potential
• Extra Retention Time
Heat : Emusion treatmnet

• Reduces Oil Viscosity

• Increases Settling Velocity
• Expands Water Droplets
• Ruptures Film
• Increases Settling
• Aids Coalescing
• Accelerates treatment Process
• Allows Smaller Treating Vessel or Greater Production
Volumes
Heat : Emulsion Treatment
Direct Fired Heater
Indirect Fired Heater

Heater Treater Electrostatic Treater

BAGIAN 2

DESAIN KOMPLESI SUMUR

PERSYARATAN DAN PEMILIHAN
 TYPICAL WELL COMPLETION

PROGRAM PENDIDIKAN BPS PT PERTAMINA EP TAHUN 2013 49

TYPICAL WELL COMPLETION

• Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi desain komplesi

• Metode Komplesi
• Desain sumur yang kompleks (horizontal dan multi-lateral)
• Konfigurasi Tubing Konvensional
• Komplesi multi-layer
• Komplesi unconventional
FAKTOR-FAKTOR DESAIN KOMPLESI SUMUR

• Titik Awal:
• Berapa laju produksi yang diharapkan?
• Kemudian, untuk desain, gabungkan:
• Kedalaman dan tekanan reservoir
• Mekanisme Pendorong Reservoir yang sudah diidentifikasi
• Perkiraan lamanya sembur alam dan kebutuhan pengangkatan buatan
(artificial lift)
• Persyaratan Enhanced Recovery – jika dibutuhkan
• Masalah kepasiran (Sand control) – jika dibutuhkan
• Persyaratan Stimulasi – jika dibutuhkan
• Komplesi multiple zone – jika diperlukan mencapai laju maksimal
MACAM-MACAM KOMPLESI
 Open Hole Completion
• KEUNTUNGAN
• Tidak ada biaya casing, penyemenan dan perforasi.
• Produksi mengalir dari keseluruhan area formasi  maximum inflo
area
• Minimum formation damage
• Large well bore
• Deepening lebih mudah dilakukan
• Biaya lebih murah
 KERUGIAN
 Formasi harus cukup kuat
 Penanganan gas dan air sulit dilakukan
 Stimulasi selektif sulit dilakukan
 (mungkin) diperlukan fill clean out secara rutin
 OPSI
 Pasang casing dan semen sebelum bor zona prospek
 Pasang casing dan semen setelah bor zona prospek
Uncemented Liner in Hole

• Keuntungan
• Sama seperti Open hole completion, dan…
• Menyediakan hole support
• Sama halnya dengan open hole, Liner Completion
memberikan inflow area yang besar.

• Kerugian
• Biaya lebih besar
• Formasi harus agak kompak
• Penanganan gas dan air sulit dilakukan
• Stimulasi selektif sulit dilakukan
Cemented Liner & Full Casing Strings

• Keuntungan
• Eksploitasi Lapisan Produktif dapat dilakukan
secara selektif
• Stimulasi selektif dapat dilakukan
• Produksi minyak, gas dan air dapat dikontrol
dengan lebih baik
• Memberikan Integritas formasi (formation integrity)

• Kerugian
• Biaya lebih mahal untuk casing, semen
dan perforasi  tipe komplesi yang
paling mahal.
• Kualitas cement bond harus bagus 
untuk mendapatkan isolasi lapisan
produksi yang sempurna.
DESAIN KOMPLESI
Yang harus diperhatikan : Keputusan yang harus diambil :
• Keamanan pada saaat 1. Barrier Policy
pemboran, komplesi & operasi 2. Metoda Komplesi
• Barrier Policy of hydraulic and 3. Jumlah Lapisan produksi
mechanical methods
4. Konfigurasi Casing
• Min. 2 barriers in place for all well
phases (prefer 3) 5. Diameter Tubing
• Buat sesederhana mungkin 6. Interval Komplesi
Realibilitas dan Fleksibilitas
Desain komplesi
• Antisipasi kondisi sumur di masa
mendatanga
• Max recovery and rate
• Maksimalisasi revenue / profit
• Minimalisasi OPEX dan investasi
awal
1. Barrier Policy
Menetapkan barrier policy :
• Definisi “Barrier”
 Kemampuan untuk mengisolasi
reservoir dari atmosfer/permukaan
secara hidrolis
• Opsi
• Hydraulic Barrier – Kolom kill
weight fluid
• Mechanical Barrier - valves, plugs
dll
• Rekomendasi
• Min. 2 barrier (lebih baik 3)
• Barrier harus berada di tempat
dan berfungsi dengan baik
selama aktivitas pemboran,
komplesi, rekomplesi dan
intervensi sumur lainnya.
Elemen Surface & SubSurface Barrier
• Surface Barrier
• Pressure & Flow
Containment : BOP Stack
or Xmas Tree
• Emergency Subsurface
Closure
• Pressure & Flow
Containment : SCSSSV
• Tubing Hydraulic Barrier
• Weighted Completion
Fluid: Designed Tbg Fluid
Gradient
• Downhole Barrier
• Annular isolation : Packer
• Plug tubing & protect
reservoir: Deep-Set Nipple
2. Metode Komplesi – Peralatan Dasar Komplesi
Di dalam Sumur : Di permukaan:
• Well casing & perforations • Back pressure valve (BPV)
• Tubing string • Production wing valve
• Tubing hanger • Production flow line
• Well head base/X-mas tree • Annulus valve
• Permanent packer/seal assembly
• SCSSSV with hydraulic control
line
• Sliding sleeve
• Gas lift valves in mandrels
• NO GO nipple
• EOT mule shoe
• Nipple profile, ported profile
• Pup joints
3. Jumlah Lapisan Produksi
Tipikal Sumur Flowing –
Peralatan Komplesi Minimal
Single Zone
• Pilih ukuran tubing berdasarkan laju
produksi atau kebutuhan artificial lift • Single String
• Pilih packer yang sesuai (packer • Single Packer
tidak selalu dibutuhkan)
• Direkomendasikan memasang
profile nipple di ujung rangkaian
• Memasang circulating device dekat
ujung rangkaian dapat bermanfaat.
• Subsurface Safety Valve : opsional.
3. Jumlah Lapisan Produksi

Multiple Zone Completion Flowing Well

• Annular flow in addition to • Annular Flow

tubing flow • Tubing Flow
• Safety issues must be • Single String
addressed with annular • Single Packer
flow.
3. Jumlah Lapisan Produksi

Multiple Zone Completion Flowing Well / 2 Packers

• Again annular and tubing • Single String

flow possible • Two Packers
• Similar to single packer
completion
• Crossover choke permits
upper zone flow
• thru tubing
• Reservoir pressures must
be known
3. Jumlah Lapisan Produksi

Multiple Zone Completion Flowing Well / Multiple Packers

• Comingled flow selectively • Commingled

chosen zones with one
• Reservoir pressures must tubing string
be known to co-mingle flow
3. Jumlah Lapisan Produksi

Multiple String Completions

• Tujuan: Maks. Produksi • Parallel Dual Completion

dengan biaya yang rendah
• Perbedaan kedalaman dan
tekanan yg besar harus
dihindari
• Biaya Operasi harus dikaji
ulang pada saat
perencanaan.
• Kunci utama : Flowing life
yang cukup lama
• Dual artificial lift biasanya
menyebabkan masalah
yang kompleks.
3. Jumlah Lapisan Produksi

Horizontal Completion Design

Ringkasan Desain Komplesi Sumur

• Kebijakan “Konvensional” selalu menjadi panduan

• Usahakan agar komplesi sesederhana mungkin
• Pertimbangkan untuk produksi secara commingle daripada
multiple string yang kompleks, jika memungkinkan
• Data biaya operasi sebagai pertimbangan pada saat
pemilihan komplesi di masa mendatang
BAGIAN 5

PROBLEM WELL ANALYSIS

Poor Data Problems

Keys to Finding “Real” Problems are:

Surveillance and Data Organization

• Daily / Weekly / Monthly Plots, Tests, Reviews

• Accurate Information: Logs, Production, Sketches
• Logical Layout of Data Tables and Maps, Logs, etc.
• Precise Record of Historical Well Intervention Jobs
Possible “Problem” Causes

• Poor Data Problems (Easy-To-Fix These?)

• Reservoir Related Factors
• Artificial Lift Requirements / Adjustments
• Mechanical Failures in the System
• Sand Control Factors
• Re-Completion Requirements / Adjustments
• Depletion Reached / Abandonment Time
• Economic Restrictions / Not Commercial to Fix
Poor Data Problems

• Including treatments budgeted and

executed to improve performance
• This is only one format of many
different formats used in the
industry to record performance
data
Poor Data Problems
Tools for Well Problem Analysis

Well Completion Sketches

• Must be accurate and kept up to
date with initial completion
information PLUS all subsequent
well intervention work
• Must accurately reflect the present
condition of all well installed
equipment
Tools for Well Problem Analysis

Analytical Software
• Industry advancements in
developing and applying computer
analyses software tools make
interrogation of well performance a
routine component of regular
surveillance activity
• The “key” is to use the software as
a tool to do the “thinking” that must
occur to figure out the true
definition of the “problem”
Eliminate the Easy-To-Fix Problems in Measurements

• Determining Liquid Rate How well test numbers are

• The test separator has either 1 total liquids gathered and generated…
meter, or, 1 oil and 1 water meter. Often, a
single meter measures total liquids & the water
cut is determined by a shake out sample,
usually taken at the wellhead . Up to 3 samples
are taken to improve the accuracy.
• Water Cut = W / (O+W) or
• Oil Rate = (Liquids) x (1 – w.c.)
• Or, Determining Gas Rate
• The test separator has its own gas meter
which measures total gas from the test
separator, TG. If gas is used for lift, then the lift
gas meter measures lift gas being injected, LG.
• To find the formation gas, subtract, TG - LG
= FG
Eliminate the Easy-To-Fix Problems in Measurements

• Or, Determining Pressures

• The flowing tubing pressure (FTP) must be upstream of the
productionchoke. The casing head pressure (CHP) must be downstream of
the injection choke / valve. The test separator pressure is used to tune the
production pressure models. The GL supply pressure is used to read the
LG rate.
Eliminate the Easy-To-Fix Problems in Measurements
Common Well Test Data Problems • Production Practices
(This is not a complete list!): • By fixing the processes of
• Too long between tests
• Manifold valves leak into production header
acquiring and managing
• Manifold valves leak from production header quality data, this may
• Oil in water error prove to be all that is
• Oil in gas error necessary to resolve
• Water in oil error performance issues
• Orifice meters not sized properly
• P cells on meters not calibrated
based upon data
• Liquid meters not calibrated
• Liquid meters out of range
• Meters not inspected
• Wellhead ‘shakeouts’ not representative
• Well tested at different back pressure from normal production
• Well tested at different lift gas rate from normal production
• THP or CHP gauge not calibrated
• THP or CHP gauge not in proper range
• Test separator purge time too short
• Test duration too short (test not representative)
• Wrong well switched to test
• Wrong well recorded as on test
• Measurements not actually taken [true!]
BAGIAN 6

PARAFFIN & ASPHALTENES

Classification of Crude Oils
Paraffin Problems
Differences: Asphalt and Paraffin

• Asphalt
• Melts slowly, gradually softening to a thick viscous liquid
• Burns with a smoky flame
– Leaves a thin ash or carbonaceous ball
• Paraffin
• Melts over a narrow temperature range
• Hot liquid has low viscosity
• Burns rapidly with less smoke than asphalt
– Leaves little residue
PARAFFIN
CHEMISTRY - CnH2n+2
• Mixtures of Alkanes
• Plus Resins, Gums, Crude Oil,
Sand, Silt, Clays, Salt, Scales and
Water
• Melting Point varies from 98oF to
215oF
DEPOSITION
• Wax deposits because of loss of
solubility of higher molecular weight
paraffins (C-18 to C-70) in the
crude
• Paraffin is not BS&W; it is a salable
product
• Heat to keep paraffin in solution; API
says heat to 140o but higher temp may
be necessary to keep wax in solution
Analysis of Paraffins

• To determine Cloud Point : Use ASTM D 2500-66

the temperature at which the first wax crystals appear according to the
standardized ASTM D2500-66 test protocol which is used to determine this
temperature

• To determine Pour Point : Use ASTM D 97-66

the temperature at which the amount of wax out of solution is sufficient to gel
the fuel when tested under standard ASTM D97 test protocol; it is a measure
of the ability of a diesel fuel to operate (or not operate / flow) under cold
weather conditions
PARAFFIN PROBLEM
Paraffin Problems Vary Among Wells
in the Same Paraffin Induced Production Problems
Reservoir Due to:
• Crude oil composition • Deposition in pore system
• Pressure drop • Deposition in perforations
• Producing procedures • Plugging in artificial lift equipment
• Coating on rods, tubing or surface
flowlines

COOLING: The Primary Cause of Deposition in Wells

• Gas expansion
• Due to pressure drop as oil moves to the wellbore and to the surface
• Due to pressure drop through perforations, chokes and other restrictions
• Dissolved gas being liberated from solution
• Reduction of producing rate
Paraffin Deposition
• Wax crystals form due to loss of
wax solubility
• A nucleating agent gathers crystals
together into a bushy particle
• Bushy agglomerates precipitates
from the crude onto producing
equipment
• Paraffin Nucleating Agents :
Asphaltenes, Formation Fines,
Corrosion products
• Well Conditions Favoring
Deposition
• Intermittent well production
• Contact of pipe with cold aquifer
• Rough pipe surface
• Effects of formation fines
Methods for Minimizing Paraffin Deposition

• Production Techniques
• Plastic Pipe or Coating
• Surfactants
• Crystal Modifiers
Remedial Treatment for Paraffin
1. Heat (Hot Oil/Steam)
Insights into Good Oiling Practices *

• Paraffin treatment should be specific to the well being treated

• Frequency of treatment should be minimized
• Good quality fluid should be used
• Injection should be down the annulus
• The tubing should be full and the well producing oil, not just gas
• BTUs / hour injected should be maximized
• The volume injected should be limited
• Thermodynamics alone should not be the deciding factor in
choosing between hot oil and hot water

* SPE 25484
Use of Heat for Wax Removal

• Hot oil dissolves and melts paraffin

• Formation damage occurs if method wax enters formation
• Hot water is often used in low temp wells
• Steam is used to melt paraffin or asphalt in flowlines, wells and
formations

Limit Hot Oiling Problems

• Use best oil available
• Use top oil (lightest available oil)
• Treat oil before using
• Change to another fluid If necessary
Remedial Treatment for Paraffin
2. Chemical Methods of Wax Removal
• Solvents • Dispersants
Selecting Solvent for Wax Removal
• Immerse a small amount of wax in
solvent in clear glass containers
• Side by side comparison will allow
solvent selection in minutes
Solvent :
• Condensate/Kerosene/Diesel (only if
asphaltene content is low)
• Benzene - Not recommended!
• Xylene
• Toluene
• Non-Toxic, Biodegradable Solvents
– Newer, more costly
• Use water soluble dispersants
• Dispersant system is usually 90% to
98% water
• Heating of solution usually aids in
wax removal
• 4 hour soak aids removal of very
hard paraffin
• Surfactants
• Crystal modifiers
Typical Crystal Modifiers
• Polyethylene (a polymer)
• Polyalkylmethacrylate (a polymer)
• Ethylene/Vinyl Acetate (a co-
polymer)
• Maleic Anhydride/Alpha (a co-
polymer)
Crystal Modifiers
Remedial Treatment for Paraffin
3. Mechanical Methods
Remedial Treatment for Paraffin
4. Bugs (microbial)
• Microorganisms do not eat oil / paraffin
• A food source must be supplied to the “bugs”
• The bugs secrete enzymes which destroy waxes
Program Design for Wax Removal

• Determine cloud point, pour point, and asphaltene content of

crude oil (to aid planning)
• Select artificial lift system (to minimize deposition)
• Down-hole hookup should permit injection of inhibitor, solvents
or heated fluid
• Heat Tracing may be required to prevent gelling of high pour
point crude
ASPHALTENES

• Black Components in Crude

• Molecular Weight – 10,000 to 100,000
• Polar chemicals because of oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and various
metals in molecular structure
• Chemically – polycyclic, condensed, aromatic ring compounds
• Asphaltene Deposition
• May separate from asphaltic crude and deposit in formation, generally near
the wellbore
• Deposition will reduce the relative permeability to oil by oil wetting the sand
• Physical plugging can occur
• Asphaltenes are a more severe problem than paraffins
Asphaltene Deposition

• Temperature and Pressure

Changes, Asphaltene Depositional
Envelope – ADE
• Change in surface charge of
asphaltene due to streaming
potential as oil flows through the
pore system
• Contact of crude oil with acid used
in stimulation treatment
• Change in asphaltene / maltene
equilibrium by contact with straight
chain hydrocarbon
ASPHALTENES

ARE SOLUBLE IN… ARE INSOLUBLE IN..

• Benzene • Distillates
• Toluene* • Kerosene
• Xylene* • Diesel Oil
• Carbon Tetrachloride • Propane
• Carbon Disulfide • Butane

* These are the only solvents

recommended for well treatments
Sludge is a Precipitate

• Consisting of:
• Asphaltenes
• Other high weight hydrocarbons
• Resins
• Caused by:
• Contact with acid
– Enhanced by Fe in solution
• Do not pump methanol into formations containing asphaltenes
(to avoid precipitation)
• Anti-Sludging Surfactants : Anionic or Nonionic blends
• Solubilize sludge, and
• Prevent flocculation of colloidal particles