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Descriptive Statistics:

Presenting
and Describing Data
Frequency Distribution
A table or graph describing the number of
observations in each category or class of a
data set.
Example:
Consider the number of bottles of soda sold
in a snack bar during lunch hour, on 40 days.
(The numbers have been arranged in increasing order.)
63 71 76 81 85
66 73 76 82 85
67 73 76 82 86
68 74 77 84 86
68 74 78 84 89
70 75 79 84 90
71 75 79 85 92
71 75 79 85 94
In order to get a better grasp of this
distribution of numbers, we’ll organize
them into categories or classes.

We’ll look at
absolute frequency,
relative frequency,
cumulative absolute frequency, &
cumulative relative frequency
Notation
[20, 30] denotes all real numbers between 20 & 30,
including the 20 & the 30.
(20, 30) denotes all real numbers between 20 & 30,
including neither the 20 nor the 30.
[20, 30) denotes all real numbers between 20 & 30,
including the 20 but not the 30.
(20, 30] denotes all real numbers between 20 & 30,
including the 30 but not the 20.
So the square bracket means include that endpoint &
the round parenthesis means do not include that
endpoint.
Absolute Frequency

class abs. freq.


[60, 65) 1
[65, 70) 4
[70, 75) 8
[75, 80) 11
[80, 85) 6
[85, 90) 7
[90, 95) 3
40
Histogram
of Absolute Frequency
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Bottles of soda
Relative Frequency
class abs. freq. rel. freq.
[60, 65) 1 0.025
[65, 70) 4 0.100
[70, 75) 8 0.200
[75, 80) 11 0.275
[80, 85) 6 0.150
[85, 90) 7 0.175
[90, 95) 3 0.075
40 1.000
Relative Frequency
This graph looks
the same as the
0.300 last one, except the
0.250 numbers on the
vertical axis are
0.200
percentages
0.150 (in decimal form)
0.100 instead of integers.
0.050
0.000
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Bottles of soda
Frequency Polygon
line connecting middle points of tops of bars

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Bottles of soda
Cumulative Absolute Frequency

class abs. freq. rel. freq. cum. abs. freq.


[60, 65) 1 0.025 1
[65, 70) 4 0.100 5
[70, 75) 8 0.200 13
[75, 80) 11 0.275 24
[80, 85) 6 0.150 30
[85, 90) 7 0.175 37
[90, 95) 3 0.075 40
40 1.000
Cumulative Absolute Frequency
40
Notice that the
35 graph of the
30 cumulative
25 absolute
frequency
20
looks like a set
15 of stairs going
10 up from left to
5
right.
0
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Bottles of soda
Cumulative Relative Frequency

class abs. freq. rel. freq. cum. abs. freq. cum. rel. freq.
[60, 65) 1 0.025 1 0.025
[65, 70) 4 0.100 5 0.125
[70, 75) 8 0.200 13 0.325
[75, 80) 11 0.275 24 0.600
[80, 85) 6 0.150 30 0.750
[85, 90) 7 0.175 37 0.925
[90, 95) 3 0.075 40 1.000
40 1.000
Cumulative Relative Frequency
1.00
Cumulative Relative Frequency

Again we have our


stairs, but the
0.75 numbers on the
vertical axis are
percentages
0.50 (in decimal form),
and the height of
the last bar is
0.25 always 1 (or 100%).

0.00
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Bottles of soda
Cumulative Relative Frequency Ogive
1.00
Cumulative Relative Frequency

Line connecting
0.75 the points at the
back of the steps.
0.50

0.25

0.00
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Bottles of soda
Next we will consider two types of
summary measures:
1. Measures of the center of the distribution
(also called measures of central tendency)
2. Measures of the spread of the distribution
Measures of
the center of the distribution,
or central tendency,
or typical value, or average
Measures of the Center of the Distribution

Mean or Arithmetic Mean:


add up the values of the observations;
then divide by the number of observations.
Median:
the value for which half of the observations
are above that value & half are below it.
Mode:
Most common, most frequent, or most
probable value.
Determining the location of the median
Recall that the median is the value for which
half of the observations are above that value &
half are below it. So we are looking for the
middle value.
Suppose there are n numbers in our data set.
We arrange them in order from the smallest
value to the largest, and give the smallest value
rank 1, the second smallest rank 2, and so forth
up to the largest value, which has rank n.
The rank of the median will be (n+1)/2.
Remember that n is the number of elements
in the data set.

We have two possible cases.


Case 1: n is odd.
Case 2: n is even.
Case 1: n is odd.

Recall that the rank of the median is (n+1)/2.


Example: n = 9
Then (n+1)/2 = (9+1)/2 = 10/5 = 5.
So the value of the 5th number is our median.
Case 2: n is even.

Recall that the rank of the median is (n+1)/2.


Example: n = 10
Then (n+1)/2 = (10+1)/2 = 11/2 = 5.5.
So we are looking for the value halfway
between the 5th and 6th numbers. So we add
the values of the 5th and 6th numbers together
and divide by 2. The result is our median.
Example 1

Observations 2, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 13
Mean 6
Median 4
Mode 2
Example 2

Observations -5, 8, 8, 9, 10, 12


Mean 7
Median 8.5
Mode 8
Example 3

Observations 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 7
Mean 4
Median 4
Mode 4
Example 4

Observations 11, 9, 26, 11, 10, 11


To calculate the median, we will want to
have the observations in order:
9 , 10, 11, 11, 11, 26
Mean 13
Median 11
Mode 11
Computing the Mean
for a Frequency Distribution of a Population
Salary xi Freq. fi
700 8
800 23
900 75
1000 90
1100 43
1200 11
250

We will denote the number of observations in


our population as N. In this example, it’s 250.
Computing the Mean
for a Frequency Distribution of a Population
Salary xi Freq. fi
700 8
800 23
900 75
1000 90
1100 43
1200 11
250

First we need the sum of all the observations:


(700 + 700 + 700 + … + 700) + (800 + 800 + 800 + … + 800) +
… + (1200 + 1200 + 1200 + … + 1200)
Computing the Mean
for a Frequency Distribution of a Population
Salary xi Freq. fi
700 8
800 23
900 75
1000 90
1100 43
1200 11
250

First we need the sum of all the observations:


(700 + 700 + 700 + … + 700) + (800 + 800 + 800 + … + 800) +
… + (1200 + 1200 + 1200 + … + 1200)
= (700 • 8) + (800 • 23) + (900 • 75) + (1000 • 90) + (1100 • 43) + (1200 • 11)
Computing the Mean
for a Frequency Distribution of a Population

Salary xi Freq. fi x i fi
700 8 5600
800 23 18,400
900 75 67,500
1000 90 90,000
1100 43 47,300
1200 11 13,200
250 242,000
Computing the Mean
for a Frequency Distribution of a Population

Salary xi Freq. fi x i fi
700 8 5600
800 23 18,400
900 75 67,500
1000 90 90,000
1100 43 47,300
1200 11 13,200
250 242,000

Then to get the mean, we will divide that sum


by the number of observations.
Computing the Mean
for a Frequency Distribution of a Population

Salary xi Freq. fi x i fi
700 8 5600
800 23 18,400
900 75 67,500
1000 90 90,000
1100 43 47,300
1200 11 13,200
250 242,000

So the mean equals 242,000 / 250 = 968.0.


Notation
We denote the mean of a population
by the Greek letter mu: 
N
For a simple list of numbers,
  (1/ N ) xi
we computed  as: i 1

If c is the number of categories


c
or classes in our frequency
distribution, then we computed
  (1/ N ) xi f i
i 1

 for a frequency distribution as:


What is the mode of this
frequency distribution?
Salary xi Freq. fi
700 8
800 23
900 75
1000 90
1100 43
1200 11
250

The mode is the most frequent or most common


value, which in this example is 1000.
What is the median of this
frequency distribution?
Salary xi Freq. fi
700 8
800 23
900 75
1000 90
1100 43
1200 11
250

Remember, the median is the middle value, or the


average of the two middle values, when there is an
even number of observations, as there is here.
Where is the median?
Salary value: x x x … x x x x … x x x
Position: 1 2 3 … 124 125 126 127 … 248 249 250

The middle is between the salaries in the 125th and


126th positions, where there are 125 values
below and 125 above.
So we need to determine what salaries are in the
125th and 126th positions.
What is the median of this frequency distribution?
Salary xi Freq. fi
700 8
800 23
900 75
1000 90
1100 43
1200 11
250
In the $700 category, we have observations 1 through 8.
In the $800 category, we have observations 9 through 31 (= 8+23).
In the $900 category, we have observations 32 through 106 (= 8+23+75) .
In the $1000 category, we have observations 107 through 196 (= 8+23+75+90) .
So the 125th & 126th observations are in the $1000 category.
Averaging the values of the two middle observations together, we get
(1000+1000)/2 = 1000.
So our median is 1000.
Calculating mean & median for interval data.
Suppose we have the following population data.
Interval frequency f
[0, 15) 10
[15, 30) 10
[30, 45) 5
[45, 60) 5
[60, 75) 5
We will compute the mean first.
We have 35 observations.
Interval frequency f
[0, 15) 10
[15, 30) 10
[30, 45) 5
[45, 60) 5
[60, 75) 5
35
We need a representative element from
each interval. For that we’ll use the midpoint.
Interval frequency f midpoint x
[0, 15) 10 7.5
[15, 30) 10 22.5
[30, 45) 5 37.5
[45, 60) 5 52.5
[60, 75) 5 67.5
35
Now we continue as we did before to calculate
the mean for a frequency distribution.
Interval frequency f midpoint x xf
[0, 15) 10 7.5 75.0
[15, 30) 10 22.5 225.0
[30, 45) 5 37.5 187.5
[45, 60) 5 52.5 262.5
[60, 75) 5 67.5 337.5
35
Add up.

Interval frequency f midpoint x xf


[0, 15) 10 7.5 75.0
[15, 30) 10 22.5 225.0
[30, 45) 5 37.5 187.5
[45, 60) 5 52.5 262.5
[60, 75) 5 67.5 337.5
35 1087.5
Divide by the number of observations,
and we have the mean.

Interval frequency f midpoint x xf


[0, 15) 10 7.5 75.0
[15, 30) 10 22.5 225.0
[30, 45) 5 37.5 187.5
[45, 60) 5 52.5 262.5
[60, 75) 5 67.5 337.5
35 1087.5
 = 1087.5/35
= 31.07
Now let’s calculate the median.

Interval frequency f
[0, 15) 10
[15, 30) 10
[30, 45) 5
[45, 60) 5
[60, 75) 5
35
To calculate the median of interval data, we
need to make an assumption.

We know the number of observations in each


interval, but not exactly what they are.
We’re going to assume that the observations
are evenly distributed in the intervals.
First, we need to figure out in which
category the median is.

Interval frequency f There are 35 observations, so


the middle one is the 18th one.
[0, 15) 10 (There are 17 observations
[15, 30) 10 below the 18th and 17 above it.)
The first 10 observations are in
[30, 45) 5 the first category.
[45, 60) 5 The 11th to the 20th observations
are in the second category.
[60, 75) 5
So the median must be in the
35 second category.
The formula for calculating the median for interval
data looks quite different from what we did before.

 ( N / 2)   f p 
median  Lmd    ( width)
 f md 
Lmd is the lower limit on the category containing the median.
N is the population size.
Sfp is the sum of the frequencies of the categories
preceding the category containing the median.
fmd is the frequency of the category containing the median.
width is the width of the interval containing the median.
Let’s go through the parts Lmd is the lower limit on the
of the formula, keeping in category containing the median.
mind that the median is in 15
the second category. N is the population size.
Interval frequency f 35
Sfp is the sum of the frequencies
[0, 15) 10 of the categories preceding the
category containing the median.
[15, 30) 10
10
[30, 45) 5
fmd is the frequency of the
[45, 60) 5 category containing the median.
10
[60, 75) 5
width is the width of the interval
35 containing the median.
15
Now we just assemble the pieces.

Interval frequency f median

[0, 15) 10  ( N / 2)   f p 
 Lmd    ( width)
[15, 30) 10  f md 

[30, 45) 5  17.5  10 


 15    (15)
[45, 60) 5  10 

[60, 75) 5  15  [0.75](15)

35  26.25
What does this mean?

Interval frequency f median

[0, 15) 10  ( N / 2)   f p 
 Lmd    ( width)
[15, 30) 10  f md 

[30, 45) 5  17.5  10 


 15    (15)
[45, 60) 5  10 

[60, 75) 5  15  [0.75](15)

35  26.25

Remember that the median is the 18 observation.


That means it’s the 8th observation of 10 in the second category.
So it is closer to the end of that interval than the beginning.
What the formula is telling us is that the median is 0.75 or ¾ of the way through
the distance of 15 units, in the interval starting at 15.
Measures of dispersion
or the spread of the distribution
Measures of Dispersion
• Range
• Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
• Mean Squared Deviation (MSD)
• Coefficient of Variation (CV)
As we shall see, the first three are measures
of absolute dispersion, while the CV is a
measure of relative dispersion.
range
largest value minus smallest value
Example 1
Observations: 1 2 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
The range is 6 -1 = 5
Example 2
Observations: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
The range is 6 -1 = 5
Intuitively, this distribution seems to be less
spread out than the distribution in Example 1,
but the range doesn’t capture that.
Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
N
MAD  (1/ N )| xi   |
i 1

This formula is for the MAD for a simple list of numbers.


We’ll do the MAD for a frequency distribution shortly.
N

Example: MAD  (1/ N )| xi   |


i 1

x
4
8
10
13
15

First we need
the mean.
N

Example: MAD  (1/ N )| xi   |


i 1

x
4
8
10
13
15
50
N

Example: MAD  (1/ N )| xi   |


i 1

x
4
8
10
13
15
50

 = 50/5 = 10
N

Example: MAD  (1/ N )| xi   |


i 1

x x-
4 -6
8 -2
10 0
13 3
15 5
50

 = 50/5 = 10
N

Example: MAD  (1/ N )| xi   |


i 1

x x- | x- |
4 -6 6
8 -2 2
10 0 0
13 3 3
15 5 5
50

 = 50/5 = 10
N

Example: MAD  (1/ N )| xi   |


i 1

x x- | x- |
4 -6 6
8 -2 2
10 0 0
13 3 3
15 5 5
50 16

 = 50/5 = 10
N

Example: MAD  (1/ N )| xi   |


i 1

x x- | x- |
4 -6 6
8 -2 2
10 0 0
13 3 3
15 5 5
50 16

 = 50/5 = 10 MAD = 16/5 = 3.2


Population Variance or
Mean Squared Deviation (MSD)
N
  MSD  (1/ N ) ( xi   ) 2
2

i 1
N

Example:   MSD  (1/ N ) ( xi   ) 2


2

i 1

x x-
4 -6
8 -2
10 0
13 3
15 5

Recall  = 10
N

Example:   MSD  (1/ N ) ( xi   ) 2


2

i 1

x x- ( x- )2
4 -6 36
8 -2 4
10 0 0
13 3 9
15 5 25

Recall  = 10
N

Example:   MSD  (1/ N ) ( xi   ) 2


2

i 1

x x- ( x- )2
4 -6 36
8 -2 4
10 0 0
13 3 9
15 5 25
74
Recall  = 10
N

Example:   MSD  (1/ N ) ( xi   ) 2


2

i 1

x x- ( x- )2
4 -6 36
8 -2 4
10 0 0
13 3 9
15 5 25
74
Recall  = 10 2 = MSD = 74/5
= 14.8
population standard deviation

    √Population Variance
2
Example:
population standard deviation
In the example we just did,
the population variance was 14.8 .
So the standard deviation is

    √14.8 = 3.847
2
Calculating the MAD, MSD, & Std. Dev.
for a Frequency Distribution
xi fi
1 3
2 5
3 2
The total number of observations N
is the sum of the frequencies or 10.
xi fi
1 3
2 5
3 2
10
Calculate the population mean .

xi fi xifi
1 3 3
2 5 10
3 2 6
10
Calculate the population mean .

xi fi xifi
1 3 3
2 5 10
3 2 6
10 19
Calculate the population mean .

xi fi xifi
1 3 3
2 5 10
3 2 6
10 19
 = 19/10
=1.9
Calculate the Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD).

xi fi xifi xi - 
1 3 3 -0.9
2 5 10 0.1
3 2 6 1.1
10 19
 = 19/10
=1.9
Calculate the Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD).

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – |
1 3 3 -0.9 0.9
2 5 10 0.1 0.1
3 2 6 1.1 1.1
10 19
 = 19/10
=1.9
Calculate the Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD).

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2
10 19
 = 19/10
=1.9
Calculate the Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD).

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2
10 19 5.4
 = 19/10
=1.9
Calculate the Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD).

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2
10 19 5.4
 = 19/10 MAD = 5.4/10
=1.9 = 0.54
Calculate the Mean Squared Deviation (MSD)
or Population Variance 2.

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi (xi – )2


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7 0.81
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.01
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2 1.21
10 19 5.4
 = 19/10 MAD = 5.4/10
=1.9 = 0.54
Calculate the Mean Squared Deviation (MSD)
or Population Variance 2.

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi (xi – )2 (xi – )2 fi


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7 0.81 2.43
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.01 0.05
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2 1.21 2.42
10 19 5.4
 = 19/10 MAD = 5.4/10
=1.9 = 0.54
Calculate the Mean Squared Deviation (MSD)
or Population Variance 2.

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi (xi – )2 (xi – )2 fi


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7 0.81 2.43
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.01 0.05
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2 1.21 2.42
10 19 5.4 4.90
 = 19/10 MAD = 5.4/10
=1.9 = 0.54
Calculate the Mean Squared Deviation (MSD)
or Population Variance 2.

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi (xi – )2 (xi – )2 fi


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7 0.81 2.43
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.01 0.05
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2 1.21 2.42
10 19 5.4 4.90
 = 19/10 MAD = 5.4/10 2 = MSD
=1.9 = 0.54 = 4.90/10
= 0.49
Last, we calculate the standard deviation.

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi (xi – )2 (xi – )2 fi


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7 0.81 2.43
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.01 0.05
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2 1.21 2.42
10 19 5.4 4.90
 = 19/10 MAD = 5.4/10 2 = MSD
=1.9 = 0.54 = 4.90/10
= 0.49
Last, we calculate the standard deviation.

xi fi xifi xi -  |xi – | |xi – |fi (xi – )2 (xi – )2 fi


1 3 3 -0.9 0.9 2.7 0.81 2.43
2 5 10 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.01 0.05
3 2 6 1.1 1.1 2.2 1.21 2.42
10 19 5.4 4.90
 = 19/10 MAD = 5.4/10 2 = MSD
=1.9 = 0.54 = 4.90/10
= 0.49
 =√0.49
= 0.7
So the formulae for calculating the MAD,
and MSD (or population variance) are
c
MAD  (1/ N ) | xi   | f i
i 1

c
  MSD  (1/ N ) ( xi   ) 2 f i
2

i 1

The standard deviation is still just the square root of the variance.
The formulae we have been
using are for populations.
If we have samples instead,
we have some notational
changes and one change
in the calculation process.
Notational Changes for Samples
instead of Populations

First, the sample size is n instead of N.

Next, we denote the sample mean by


“Xbar” instead of . X
To calculate the sample mean for a n
X  (1/ n) xi
simple list of numbers we have: i 1

To calculate the sample mean for a c

frequency distribution we have:


X  (1/ n) xi f i
i 1
Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
for a sample

MAD for a n

simple list of MAD  (1/ n)| xi  X |


i 1
numbers:
MAD for a c
frequency MAD  (1/ n)| xi  X | f i
distribution: i 1
Sample Variance
The MSD is just for the population variance.
We don’t have an MSD for the sample.
The calculation is also slightly different for
the sample variance than it was for the
population variance.
Sample Variance (denoted by s2)
Sample Variance n 2

for a simple list of s  [1/(n  1)] ( xi  X )


2

numbers: i 1

Sample Variance c
for a frequency s  [1/(n  1)] ( xi  X ) f i
2 2

distribution: i 1

The only change that is not just notational is that instead of


dividing by n, we divide by n-1.
The reason for this change is so that the sample variance will
be an unbiased estimator of the population variance. We’ll
discuss the idea of unbiasedness later in the semester.
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
Our other measures of the spread of the
distribution were measures of absolute
dispersion.
The CV is calculated relative to the mean,
so it is considered a relative measure of
dispersion.
Coefficient of Variation (CV)

CV  (s / X ) * 100 %

The CV is simply the standard deviation


divided by the mean multiplied by 100 to
put it in percentage terms.
Example: Suppose you have data for a sample that
has a mean of 200 and a standard deviation of 10.
What is the coefficient of variation (CV)?

CV  (s / X ) * 100 %
 (10 / 200 ) * 100 %
 ( 0.05 ) * 100 %
5 %

This result tells us that the standard deviation


is 5% as large as the mean.
At my web page,
there is a summary sheet called
“Selected Descriptive Statistics.”

It shows some of the different formulae for


simple lists of numbers and frequency
distributions, for populations and samples.
Print it out and look at how the formulae are
similar and how they’re different.
Empirical Rule
In most data sets, many of the values tend to
cluster near the center of the distribution. In
symmetric, bell-shaped distributions,

approximately 68% of the values are within 1


standard deviations of the mean;
approximately 95% of the values are within 2
standard deviations of the mean; and
approximately 99.7% of the values are within 3
standard deviations of the mean.
Thus, values that are more than 3 standard
deviations from the mean are very atypical
and are often called “outliers.”

Determining whether an observation is an outlier is


equivalent to determining if its “z-score” is less
than -3 or greater than +3.
The formula for the z-score is:

x X
Z  score 
s
Example
Suppose that a particular sample has a mean of
100, and a standard deviation of 10.
Would a value of 120 be considered an outlier?

x  X 120  100
Z  score   2
s 10

Since the Z-score is not less than -3 or greater than


+3, 120 is not an outlier in this sample.
Example
Is 150 an outlier in this sample (with mean 100 and
standard deviation 10)?

x  X 150  100
Z  score   5
s 10
Since the Z-score is less than -3 or greater than
+3, 150 is an outlier in this sample.
Example
Is 60 an outlier in this sample (with mean 100 and
standard deviation 10)?

x  X 60  100
Z  score    4
s 10
Since the Z-score is less than -3 or greater than
+3, 60 is an outlier in this sample.
Symmetric versus Skewed
Distributions
Symmetric Distribution

For a symmetric distribution,


the left and right sides are
mirror images of each other.
The mean, median, and mode
are the same.
Positively or Right-Skewed Distribution

If the longer tail is to the right,


the distribution is positively
skewed or skewed to the right.
A small number of very large
values pulls the mean up, so
the mean is larger than the
median.
Negatively or Left-Skewed Distribution

If the longer tail is to the left,


the distribution is negatively
skewed or skewed to the left.
A small number of very small
values pulls the mean down,
so the mean is smaller than
the median.

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