Pengurusan Operasi

Bab 7 Proses Strategi

1
 Dell Computer Company

Mass customization provides a

competitive advantage
 Sell custom-built PCs directly to consumer
 Lean production processes and good
product design allow responsiveness
 Integrate the Web into every aspect of its
business
 Focus research on software designed to
make installation and configuration of its
PCs fast and simple
2
 Process Strategies

 How to produce a product or provide

a service that
 Meets or exceeds customer
requirements
 Meets cost and managerial goals
 Has long term effects on
 Efficiency and production flexibility
 Costs and quality

3
 Process Strategies

Four basic strategies

 Process focus
 Repetitive focus
 Product focus
 Mass customization
Within these basic strategies there are
many ways they may be implemented
4
 Process Focus
 Facilities are organized around specific
activities or processes
 General purpose equipment and skilled
personnel
 High degree of product flexibility
 Typically high costs and low equipment
utilization
 Product flows may vary considerably
making planning and scheduling a
challenge
5
 Process Focus
Job Shop

Many departments and

many routings
Many
Many variety
inputs of
outputs

6
 Process Flow Diagram
Customer

Customer sales
Purchasing
representative

Vendors PREPRESS DEPT

Accounting Receiving PRINTING DEPT

Warehouse COLLATING GLUING, BINDING,

DEPT STAPLING, LABELING

Information flow POLYWRAP DEPT

Material flow
SHIPPING

Customer Figure 7.2

7
 Repetitive Focus

 Facilities often organized as

assembly lines
 Characterized by modules with parts
and assemblies made previously
 Modules may be combined for many
output options
 Less flexibility than process-
focused facilities but more efficient
8
 Repetitive Focus
Automobile Assembly Line

Raw Modules
materials combined
and for many
module output
inputs options

Few
modules

9
 Process Flow Diagram
Frame tube Frame-building Frame Hot-paint
bending work cells machining frame painting
THE ASSEMBLY LINE
TESTING Engines and
Incoming parts transmissions
28 tests
From Milwaukee
on a JIT arrival
Air cleaners Oil tank work cell schedule

Fluids and mufflers Shocks and forks

Fuel tank work cell Handlebars

Wheel work cell Fender work cell

Roller testing
Crating

Figure 7.3
10
 Product Focus

 Facilities are organized by product

 High volume but low variety of
products
 Long, continuous production runs
enable efficient processes
 Typically high fixed cost but low
variable cost
 Generally less skilled labor
11
 Product Focus

Continuous Work Flow

Output
variations
Few in size,
inputs shape,
and
packaging

12
 Product Focus
D A Scrap
Nucor Steel Plant steel
Continuous caster

B
C Electric
Ladle of molten steel furnace

Continuous cast steel

sheared into 24-ton slabs
Hot tunnel furnace - 300 ft
E F

Hot mill for finishing, cooling, and coiling

H G
I

13
 Mass Customization

 The rapid, low-cost production of

goods and service to satisfy
increasingly unique customer
desires
 Combines the
flexibility of a
process focus
with the efficiency
of a product focus
14
 Mass Customization
Table 7.1 Number of Choices
Item 1970s 21st Century
Vehicle models 140 286
Vehicle types 18 1,212
Bicycle types 8 19
Software titles 0 400,000
Web sites 0 98,116,993
Movie releases 267 458
New book titles 40,530 77,446
Houston TV channels 5 185
Breakfast cereals 160 340
Items (SKUs) in 14,000 150,000
supermarkets
LCD TVs 0 102
15
 Mass Customization

Figure 7.5
Repetitive Focus
Flexible people
and equipment
Supportive
supply Modular techniques
chains

Mass Customization
Effective Rapid
scheduling throughput
techniques techniques

Process-Focused Product-Focused
High variety, low volume Low variety, high volume
Low utilization (5% to 25%) High utilization (70% to 90%)
General-purpose equipment Specialized equipment

16
 Comparison of Processes
Process Focus Repetitive Focus Product Focus Mass Customization
(Low volume, high (Modular) (High-volume, low- (High-volume, high-
variety) variety) variety)

Small quantity, Long runs, Large quantity, Large quantity,

large variety of standardized small variety of large variety of
products product made from products products
modules
General purpose Special equipment Special purpose Rapid changeover
equipment aids in use of equipment on flexible
assembly line equipment

Table 7.2
17
 Comparison of Processes
Process Focus Repetitive Focus Product Focus Mass Customization
(Low volume, high (Modular) (High-volume, low- (High-volume, high-
variety) variety) variety)

Operators are Employees are Operators are less Flexible operators

broadly skilled modestly trained broadly skilled are trained for the
necessary
customization

Many job Repetition reduces Few work orders Custom orders

instructions as training and and job instructions require many job
each job changes changes in job because jobs instructions
instructions standardized
Table 7.2
18
 Comparison of Processes
Process Focus Repetitive Focus Product Focus Mass Customization
(Low volume, high (Modular) (High-volume, low- (High-volume, high-
variety) variety) variety)

Raw material JIT procurement Raw material Raw material

inventories high techniques used inventories are low inventories are low

Work-in-process is JIT inventory Work-in-process Work-in-process

high techniques used inventory is low inventory driven
down by JIT, lean
production

Table 7.2
19
 Comparison of Processes
Process Focus Repetitive Focus Product Focus Mass Customization
(Low volume, high (Modular) (High-volume, low- (High-volume, high-
variety) variety) variety)

Units move slowly Movement is Swift movement of Goods move swiftly

through the plant measured in hours unit through the through the facility
and days facility is typical

Finished goods Finished goods Finished goods Finished goods

made to order made to frequent made to forecast often build-to-
forecast and stored order (BTO)

Table 7.2
20
 Comparison of Processes
Process Focus Repetitive Focus Product Focus Mass Customization
(Low volume, high (Modular) (High-volume, low- (High-volume, high-
variety) variety) variety)

Scheduling is Scheduling based Relatively simple Sophisticated

complex, trade- on building various scheduling, scheduling required
offs between models from a establishing output to accommodate
inventory, variety of modules rate to meet custom orders
availability, to forecasts forecasts
customer service

Table 7.2
21
 Comparison of Processes
Process Focus Repetitive Focus Product Focus Mass Customization
(Low volume, high (Modular) (High-volume, low- (High-volume, high-
variety) variety) variety)

Fixed costs low, Fixed costs Fixed costs high, Fixed costs high,
variable costs high dependent on variable costs low variable costs must
flexibility of the be low
facility
Costing estimated Costs usually known High fixed costs High fixed costs
before job, known due to extensive mean costs and dynamic
only after the job experience dependent on variable costs make
utilization of costing a challenge
capacity
Table 7.2
22
 Focused Processes

 Focus brings efficiency

 Focus on depth of product line
rather than breadth
 Focus can be
 Customers
 Products
 Service
 Technology

23
 Changing Processes

 Difficult and expensive

 May mean starting over
 Process strategy determines
transformation strategy for an
extended period
 Important to get it right

24
 Process Analysis and Design
 Flow Diagrams - Shows the movement
of materials
 Time-Function Mapping - Shows flows
and time frame
 Value-Stream Mapping - Shows flows
and time and value added beyond the
immediate organization
 Process Charts - Uses symbols to show
key activities
 Service Blueprinting - focuses on
customer/provider interaction
25
 “Baseline” Time-Function Map
Order Receive
Customer product product

Process
Sales order

Production Wait
control

Plant A Print

Warehouse Wait Wait Wait

Plant B Extrude

Transport Move Move

12 days 13 days 1 day 4 days 1 day 10 days 1 day 0 day 1 day

Figure 7.7
52 days
26
 “Target” Time-Function Map
Order Receive
Customer product product

Process
Sales order

Production
control Wait

Plant Print Extrude

Warehouse Wait

Transport Move

1 day 2 days 1 day 1 day 1 day

6 days
Figure 7.7
27
Value-Stream Mapping

Figure 7.8
28
Process Chart

Figure 7.9
29
 Service Blueprint

 Focuses on the customer and

provider interaction
 Defines three levels of interaction
 Each level has different
management issues
 Identifies potential failure points

30
 Service Blueprint
Personal Greeting Service Diagnosis Perform Service Friendly Close
Level Customer arrives
#1 for service Customer departs

F
Customer pays bill
Determine Notify
Warm greeting specifics customer
and obtain No and recommend
service request an alternative F
Standard provider
request Can
Level service be F
#2 done and does No
Direct customer customer
to waiting room approve? Notify
customer the
car is ready
F F F
Yes Yes
Perform
Level required work
#3
F
Prepare invoice

Figure 7.10 F
31
 Process Analysis Tools
 Flowcharts provide a view of the
big picture
 Time-function mapping adds rigor
and a time element
 Value-stream analysis extends to
customers and suppliers
 Process charts show detail
 Service blueprint focuses on
customer interaction
32
 Service Process Matrix
Degree of Customization
Low High
Mass Service Professional Service
Private
banking
Commercial
banking
High General-
Full-service purpose law firms
stockbroker
Degree of Labor

Boutiques
Retailing

Service Factory Law clinics Service Shop

Limited-service Specialized
stockbroker hospitals
Warehouse and Fast-food Fine-dining
catalog stores restaurants Hospitals
Low restaurants
Airlines

No-frills
Figure 7.11 airlines
33
 Service Process Matrix
Mass Service and Professional Service
 Labor involvement is high
 Selection and training highly important
 Focus on human resources
 Personalized services
Service Factory and Service Shop
 Automation of standardized services
 Low labor intensity responds well to
process technology and scheduling
 Tight control required to maintain
standards
34
 Improving Service Productivity

Strategy Technique Example

Separation Structure service so Bank customers go to a
customers must go manager to open a new
where service is account, to loan officers
offered for loans, and to tellers
for deposits
Self-service Self-service so Supermarkets and
customers examine, department stores,
compare, and evaluate Internet ordering
at their own pace

Table 7.3
35
 Improving Service Productivity

Strategy Technique Example

Postponement Customizing at delivery Customizing vans at
delivery rather than at
production
Focus Restricting the Limited-menu
offerings restaurant
Modules Modular selection of Investment and
service, modular insurance selection,
production prepackaged food
modules in restaurants

Table 7.3
36
 Improving Service Productivity

Strategy Technique Example

Automation Separating services thatAutomatic teller
may lend themselves to machines
automation

Scheduling Precise personnel Scheduling ticket

scheduling counter personnel at 15-
minute intervals at
airlines
Training Clarifying the service Investment counselor,
options, explaining how funeral directors, after-
to avoid problems
sale maintenanceTable 7.3
personnel 37
Improving Service Processes

 Layout
 Product exposure, customer
education, product enhancement
 Human Resources
 Recruiting and training
 Impact of flexibility

38
 Equipment and Technology

 Often complex decisions

 Possible competitive advantage
 Flexibility
 Stable processes
 May allow enlarging the scope of the
processes

39
 Production Technology

 Machine technology
 Automatic identification
systems (AISs)
 Process control
 Vision system
 Robot
 Automated storage and retrieval systems
(ASRSs)
 Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)
 Flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs)
 Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)
40
 Machine Technology

 Increased precision
 Increased productivity
 Increased flexibility
 Improved environmental impact
 Reduced changeover time
 Decreased size
 Reduced power requirements
41
Automatic Identification
Systems (AISs)
 Improved data acquisition
 Reduced data entry errors
 Increased speed
 Increased scope
of process
automation

Example – Bar codes and RFID

42
 Process Control

 Increased process stability

 Increased process precision
 Real-time provision of information
for process evaluation
 Data available in many forms

43
Process Control Software

44
 Vision Systems

 Particular aid to inspection

 Consistently accurate
 Never bored
 Modest cost
 Superior to individuals performing
the same tasks

45
 Robots

 Perform monotonous or dangerous

tasks
 Perform tasks requiring significant
strength or endurance
 Generally enhanced consistency
and accuracy

46
 Automated Storage and
Retrieval Systems (ASRSs)

 Automated placement and

withdrawal of parts and products
 Reduced errors and labor
 Particularly useful in inventory and
test areas of manufacturing firms

47
 Automated Guided Vehicle
(AGVs)

 Electronically guided and controlled

carts
 Used for movement of products
and/or individuals

48
 Flexible Manufacturing
Systems (FMSs)
 Computer controls both the workstation
and the material handling equipment
 Enhance flexibility and reduced waste
 Can economically produce low volume at
high quality
 Reduced changeover time and increased
utilization
 Stringent communication requirement
between components
49
 Computer-Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM)
 Extension of flexible manufacturing
systems
 Backwards to engineering and inventory
control
 Forward into warehousing and shipping
 Can also include financial and customer
service areas
 Reducing the distinction between low-
volume/high-variety, and high-
volume/low-variety production
50
 Computer-
Integrated
Manufacturing
(CIM)

Figure 7.12

51
 Technology in Services
Service Industry Example

Financial Services Debit cards, electronic funds transfer, ATMs,

Internet stock trading
Education Electronic bulletin boards, on-line journals,
WebCT and Blackboard
Utilities and Automated one-man garbage trucks, optical
government mail and bomb scanners, flood warning
systems
Restaurants and Wireless orders from waiters to kitchen,
foods robot butchering, transponders on cars that
track sales at drive-throughs
Communications Electronic publishing, interactive TV

Table 7.4 52
 Technology in Services
Service Industry Example

Hotels Electronic check-in/check-out, electronic

key/lock system
Wholesale/retail ATM-like kiosks, point-of-sale (POS)
trade terminals, e-commerce, electronic
communication between store and supplier,
bar coded data
Transportation Automatic toll booths, satellite-directed
navigation systems
Health care Online patient-monitoring, online medical
information systems, robotic surgery
Airlines Ticketless travel, scheduling, Internet
purchases
Table 7.4 53
 Process Redesign

 The fundamental rethinking of business

processes to bring about dramatic
improvements in performance
 Relies on reevaluating the purpose of the
process and questioning both the
purpose and the underlying assumptions
 Requires reexamination of the basic
process and its objectives
 Focuses on activities that cross
functional lines
 Any process is a candidate for redesign
54
 Ethics and Environmentally
Friendly Processes
Reduce the negative impact on the
environment
 Encourage recycling
 Efficient use of resources
 Reduction of waste by-products
 Use less harmful ingredients
 Use less energy
55