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In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of proactive maintenance
techniques for repair and maintenance onboard vessels.
There have been numerous advances in condition monitoring technology, trending,
and increasingly more powerful planned maintenance software. However, machinery
systems have continued to become larger and more complex, requiring skilled
operators with specialized knowledge of the machinery and systems onboard.
Maintenance is particularly vulnerable to error because the work is often complex,
involving the frequent removal and replacement of a variety of components. Certain
tasks also require high levels of vigilance and skill to detect faults that can be
infrequent and difficult to spot. Maintenance is also commonly performed in difficult
working conditions and often under time pressure. Maintenance errors have been
contributory factors in a number of high profile accidents across different industries.
The maritime industry is no exception.
Attention to Human Factors is a proven way to enhance performance and reduce the
risks of accidents and incidents. Human Factor takes a human centered approach
when considering the design and operation of the workplace. This helps to control the
factors that influence and shape behavior which can lead to error and rule violation.
Oue to the operation of the ship and exposure to environmental conditions, such as air,
humidity, heat and seawater, the ship and its equipment deteriorate. Further, as the
time passes by, certain documentation, services and equipment become invalid, out
dated or non-compliant.
This makes maintenance necessary in order to maintain compliance with the applicable
requirements on safety and pollution prevention. Company carry out maintenance either
as corrective maintenance or preventive maintenance.

„

÷
÷  means taking corrective actions  ÷
deficiencies have
occurred. Corrective maintenance is an  ÷e
approach as it implies that at times deficiencies can be found on board compromising
the safety of the ship, its personnel and the environment.
When serious deficiencies are found during class surveys, Flag State inspections or
Port State inspection, the ship may be detained until rectification.


 ÷
÷  means taking preventive actions  
deficiencies occur.
This means continuous compliance, no deficiencies on board and therefore
no ground for detention.
 D
[Ships do not move cargoes, people doơ.

„ ÷  is the knowledge, skills and attitude

utilised to fulfil a defined role, safely and
successfully to a defined standard.
=ne of the primary responsibilities of a ship owner and ship management Company
is that the ship hull structures, machinery and equipment are maintained and
operated in conformity with the applicable rules and regulations and any relevant
additional requirements, procedures and standards established by the Company.

That responsibility starts from the top Managers of the Company, who should be
committed to direct efforts, resources and investments in order to ensure that their
ships are properly maintained and operated by qualified and competent crew.
Such a Companyƞs commitment from the top is the first element to be verified by
the ISM Auditors.
The objectives of a responsible Company should be to ensure, as required by
the ISM Code, that the procedures for ship maintenance established by the
Company are properly implemented ashore and on board. The identification
of factual evidences and possible non-conformities related to the
implementation of ship maintenance procedures ashore and on board is the
second step of verification against the relevant requirements of the ISM Code.
The Company shall not limit its maintenance and repair interventions to the
ones strictly required by Flag and Port State Authorities, classification
societies and other interested parties during periodical and renewal- of certificates
surveys. In accordance with the requirements of the ISM Code, the Company is the
party which is solely responsible for the daily maintenance of the ship, including the
hull structure, machinery and equipment and for the safe and environmentally
responsible operation of the ship.
 

 

„






„


Clause 10.1 of the ISM Code states, ƠThe Company should establish procedures
to ensure that the ship is maintained in conformity with the provisions of the
relevant rules and regulations and with any additional requirements which may
be established by the Companyơ.

Clause 10.2 of the ISM Code states, that the company should ensure that any
non-conformity is reported, with its possible cause, if known, and that
appropriate corrective action is taken.

Clause 10.3 of the ISM Code states, ƠThe Company should establish procedures
in its SMS to identify equipment and technical systems the sudden operational
failure of which may result in hazardous situations. The SMS should provide for
specific measures aimed at promoting the reliability of such equipment or
systems. These measures should include the regular testing of stand-by
arrangements and equipment or technical systems that are
not in continuous useơ.
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@? is the lost weight [g]

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What is the 8760 ???

jy understanding the risk of losses associated with equipment
failures, a maintenance program can be optimized. This
optimization is achieved by allocating maintenance
resources to equipment maintenance according to risk
impact on the vessel.

For example:

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PSC Inspectors are boarding a ship without announcement and primarily check the ship's
documents for completeness and validity. If there are any grounds to believe that the ship is
substantially not conforming with the international conventions, the inspector will carry out an
expanded inspection of the ship's condition and the required equipment. The Master will
receive an official inspection report consisting of Form A and j. Form A lists the ship's details
and the validity of the relevant certificates. Form j shows the list of deficiencies found (if any),
with an action code which describes a timeframe for rectification for each deficiency.
If clear grounds are established that the ship forms a hazard to safety and/or the
environment, the PSC= has the right to detain the ship in port until the respective deficiencies
have been rectified and resurveyed. The PSC authority will either resurvey by own inspectors
or ask for a survey report from the Classification surveyor to verify the rectification.
Any detention has to be reported as soon as possible by the authority to the flagstate, the
classification society and IM=. The data about the inspection and the given timeframe for
rectification are entered in a computer system used by all members of a regional PSC
agreement.

  
„ 

The PSC authorities within the main M= regions are using deficiency codes for the various
defects they are listing in the inspection reports. They are defining the kind of deficiency and
are used for statistical evaluations.
We must not mix them with an Action Codes

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The given timeframe for rectification of each deficiency is commonly given in a
coded form in the inspection report, called "action code".

Following codes are mainly used:

30 = ?rounds for detention

17 = Master instructed to rectify deficiency before departure
16 = to be rectified within 14 days
15 = to be rectified at next port of call
19 = rectify major non-conformity before departure
18 = rectify non-conformity within 3 months
10 = deficiency rectified
40 = next port informed
47 = as in agreed class conditions
50 = Flagstate informed
70 = Classification society informed
80 = temporary repair
99 = to be specified in free text
.
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vidence that the ship, its crew or its safety management system does not comply
with the requirements of the relevant conventions. Such evidence needs not necessarily be
a deficiency, but may be an incident, and accident or and indication of substantial
non-compliance/detainable deficiencies.

  : Non-compliance, discrepancy or deviation from the requirements of the relevant
instruments/conventions.
  
÷/ means an observed situation where the objective evidence indicates the non-
fulfilment of a specified requirement.

÷/
means a statement of fact made during an inspection and substantiated by
objective evidence. It may also be a statement made by the inspector referring to the competence
management system which, if not corrected, may lead to a non-conformity in the future.
 ÷
  / A deficiency that presents an immediate threat to the ship, its personnel
or the environment, which renders the ship unsafe to proceed to sea.
 ÷ ÷/ Intervention action taken by the port State in case of detainable deficiencies or
substantial non-compliance to ensure that the ship does not sail until detainable deficiencies
have been rectified.
 The following factors usually influence equipment failure:
1) Oesign error
2) Faulty material
3) Improper fabrication and construction
4) Improper operation
5) Inadequate maintenance
6) Maintenance errors
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Oepending on the dominant system failure mechanisms, system operation, system
operating environment and system maintenance, specific equipment failure modes
exhibit a variety of failure rates and patterns.
1) Infant mortality or wear-in
2) Random
3)
arly wear-out
4) Wear-out
Wear-in failure ƛ dominated by [weakơ members related to problems such as
manufacturing defects and installation/maintenance/startup errors. Also known as
[burn inơ or [infant mortalityơ failures.
Random failure ƛ dominated by chance failures caused by sudden stresses,
extreme conditions, random human errors, etc. (e.g., failure is not predictable
by time).

Wear-out failure ƛ dominated by end-of-useful life issues for equipment

  ÷




jy simply identifying which of the three equipment failure characteristics is representative

of the equipment failure mode, =fficer gains insight into the proper maintenance strategy.
For example, if an equipment failure mode exhibits a wear-out pattern, rebuilding or
replacing the equipment item may be an appropriate strategy. However, if an equipment
failure mode is characterized by wear-in failure, replacing or rebuilding the equipment item
may not be advisable. Finally, a basic understanding of failure rate helps in determining
whether maintenance or equipment redesign is necessary. For example, equipment failure
modes that exhibit high failure rates (e.g., fail frequently) are usually best addressed by
redesign rather than applying more frequent maintenance.
Vapanese Statistical Study on Reliability of Ship
quipment and Safety Management from
1982 to 1997 ( 15 years ), the total number of 376 ships as the object of investigation.
The collected data is of 2 kinds,
the one concerned with the failure, the other concerned with the alarm.
And the total number is 114402 [case]
Among these, the amount of data as the occurrence of ship equipment failure is 77114 [case],
The basic principle of planned maintenance is that restoring or discarding the item at a
specific time before failure is expected can best manage the probability of failure.
Following this principle, the planned-maintenance tasks are performed at set intervals,
regardless of whether or not a failure is impending. Restoring the item or discarding it
and replacing it with a new item prevent the failure.
=ur tool for planned maintenance on board is AM=S software
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§ Correct equipment position / number / marks

§ Work description request or equipment symptoms
§ rgency of work
§ Initial safety considerations

=fficer reviews AM=S to determine if the job has been performed previously and history is
available.


 

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=bserving physical restraints
§ Access to work area
§
quipment removal requirements
§ Space for lifting devices or mobile equipment
§ Proximity of other jobs going on at potentially the same time
§ Identify environmental condition
§ Wet
§ Hot
§ Cold
§ Heights
§ Oepths
§
scaping Steam
§ Product
§ Chemicals
§ Identify safety issues
§ Permits ƛ Hot Work,
nclosed Space
ntry
§ PP
requirements
§ jlowers
§ Fall protection harnesses
§ Monitoring devices
§
xtra safety watch people
§ Prepare field drawings or sketches
§ Take digital pictures with supporting notes
§ Prepare any type of notations that will help plan the job
§ Specify special tolls and/or equipment
§ Cranes
§ Fire protection
§ Welding/cutting tools
§ Scaffolding
 

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 Although many failure modes are not age-related, most of them give some sort of
warning that they are in the process of occurring or about to occur. If evidence can
be found that something is in the final stages of a failure, it may be possible to
take action to prevent it from failing completely and/or to avoid the consequences.

Warning
Period

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1) =nset of failure must be detectable. There must be some measurable parameter that can
detect the deterioration in the equipmentƞs condition. In addition, maintenance personnel
must be able to establish limits to determine when corrective action is needed.
2) Reasonably consistent P-F interval. The P-F interval must be consistent enough to ensure that
corrective actions are not implemented prematurely or that failure occurs before corrective
actions are implemented.
3) Practical interval in which condition-monitoring tasks can be performed. The P-F interval must
be sufficient to permit a practical task interval. For example, a failure with a P-F interval of
minutes or hours is probably not a good candidate for a condition-monitoring maintenance
task.
4) Sufficient warning so that corrective actions can be implemented. The P-F interval must be
long enough to allow corrective actions to be implemented. This can be determined by
subtracting the task interval from the expected P-F interval and then judging whether
sufficient time remains to take necessary corrective actions.
5) Reduces the probability of failure (and therefore the risk) to an acceptable level. The tasks
must be carried out at an interval so that the probability of failure allows an acceptable risk
level to be achieved. Agreed-upon risk acceptance criteria should be determined and
recorded.
6) Must be cost-effective. The cost of undertaking a task over a period of time should be less
than the total cost of the consequences of failure.
This is so called failure-finding maintenance, and it is included in onboard planned
maintenance software ƛ AM=S.
Testing and inspections tasks are designed to discover equipment faults that are
not detected during normal crew operations (e.g., hidden failures)
For example, a standby electrical generator failing to start on loss of
power may only be discovered when the primary generator fails and power is lost.
jasically, the Inspection ƛ means visiting all accessible areas of the ship,
assessment of the sea worthiness, cargo worthiness, the quality of the manning,
service and maintenance, safety standards, (particularly crew safe working
practices), the operational performance of the ship and pollution control.
Inspection plays a vital role in vessel quality control and day to day maintenance
Competence is required to detect and characterise the defect which is expected
 Some of the common negative factors expressed by individuals involved in ISM
implementation are:

Y
Too much paperwork
Y
Voluminous procedures manuals
Y
Irrelevant procedures
Y
No feeling of involvement in the system
Y
Ticking boxes in checklists (without actually carrying out the required task)
Y
Not enough people/time to undertake all the extra work involved
Y
Inadequately trained/motivated people
Y
No perceived benefit compared with the input required
Y
ISM is just a paperwork exercise
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In ordr to vrify th t th SQM Syst is functioning s intndd, M str, in co -opr tion with
th Ship M n gnt sh  copt th foowing Chck List onc onth. Coptd Chck
List sh  b fid in CHECK LISR FILE.

š
c c
c
NOc IREMc Ysc Contc
1c Dck Log Book nd GMDSS og propry kpt nd signd by c
officrs.
Bridg nd Dck Chck Lists bing usd s dscribd in
SMMc
2c Oi Rcord Book nd Log book for Chic  usd onbo rd c
kpt in ccord nc with instructions, upd td nd signd by
Chif Enginrc
3c Engin Roo Log Book kpt in ccord nc with instructions c
nd signd by Chif Enginr. Bunkring Procdur bing
foowd.c
4c F ii ris tion Chck Lists propry coptd for  nw c
prsonn (Fid in Prsonn fi c
5c S fty Chck Lists (Encosd Sp c, Procdurs foowd c
nd Chck Lists Fid c
6c Ch rt Corrctions coptd up ti  st rcivd Notic to c
M rinrsc
7c Voy g P ss g P nning c rrid out in ccord nc with c
instructions nd Cop ny Poicyc
8c Ships Mdicin Chst. Stock in ccord nc with rgu tions c
nd us of dicins rcordd propry.c
9c P nnd M intn nc Syst (PMS Up to d t nd in c
ccord nc with procdur givn in SMM. c
10c M str¶s wky inspction of ccood tion g y food c
stor prford nd rcordd in B h  s Offici  Log Bookc
11c Work P nning Mtings PEC ctivity kpt s pr SMM c c
12c Dris p nnd nd prford s in ccord nc with c
instructions in SMM nd PMS c

D t M str
.........................................
It is generally accepted that leaking hatch covers are a principal cause of cargo wetting.
Hatches leak for a variety of reasons, but mainly because of poor maintenance or
failure to close them properly. There is a degree of confusion as to whether hatches are
constructed to be ÷
÷÷ or  ÷
÷÷. This is apparent when surveyors check
for watertightness during statutory inspections. Minor leakage during a test is often
accepted as being within the standard for weathertightness; in fact, 
 


÷


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We think hatches are robust, monolithic structures, thereby failing to appreciate the
small tolerances on panel alignment and gasket compression.
For example, 4mm wear on the steel-to-steel contact is sufficient to damage rubber
sealing gaskets beyond repair; 5mm sag along the cross-joint can cause a large gap
between the compression bar and gasket. It is better to think of hatches as complex,
finely-made structures, to be handled with care.

÷

 ÷
÷÷ 
We always refer to hatch covers needing to be Ɲweathertightƞ, but what does this actually mean?
The statutory requirement contained in Regulation 3(12) of the International Convention on Load Lines 1966,
states:
Ɲ Ơweathertightơ in relation to any part of a ship other than a door in a bulkhead means that the part is such
that water will not penetrate it and so enter the hull of the ship in the worst sea and weather conditions likely
to be encountered by the ship in serviceƞ.


Rectify any steel-to-steel fault before renewal of rubber packing. Renewal will not be
effective if steel-to-steel contact points are defective, and expensive rubber packing will
be ruined after only a few months of use;
Replace missing or damaged hatch gaskets (rubber packing) immediately. The
minimum length of replaced gasket should be 1 metre;
Keep hatch coaming tops clean and the double drainage channels free of obstructions.
(=pen hatch covers to clean coaming tops and the double drainage channels after
loading bulk cargo);
Keep cleats and wedges in serviceable condition and correctly adjusted;
Keep wheels, cleats, hinge pins, and other elements well greased;
Test hydraulic oil regularly for contamination and deterioration;
Keep hydraulic systems oiltight;

nsure the oil tank of the hydraulic system is kept filled to the operating level and with
the correct oil;
Clean up oil spills. If the leak cannot be stopped immediately, construct a save-all to
contain the oil and empty it regularly;
Remember that continuing and regular maintenance of hatches is more effective and
less expensive than sporadic inspection and major repair.
 „
!
  
÷
÷
„

It is the rubber seal that keeps the water out of the cargo.
The double drainage system is as important in keeping water away from cargo.

Renewing a worn rubber seal is all that is needed to keep a hatch watertight.
Worn rubber is usually the result of worn steel-to-steel contact surfaces or a deformed
structure. Rubber renewal alone is futile unless the steel-to-steel contact surface is
repaired.

Watertight is the same as weathertight.

From a hatch cover design perspective, watertight means that water cannot get in or
out; weathertight (as required by the 1966 Load Line Convention) means that water
cannot pass through the seal.

Hatch covers will always leak in heavy weather.

Hatch covers are designed to withstand the rigours of the sea. Provided the cleats are
correctly adjusted, hatch gaskets are in good condition and the construction material
sound, then hatch covers should not leak, regardless of the weather.

Screwing cleats down hard will ensure watertightness.

No amount of tightening of cleats beyond their correct position will improve hatch
watertightness. Hatch cover manufacturers usually test for watertightness without
engaging cleats. The weight of a hatch is sufficient to create the required gasket
compression.
 Orain valves are not important; it does not matter if they are blocked.
Orain valves are an essential feature of the double drainage system as they allow water
that has penetrated the hatch gasket (rubber packing) to drain away. If the valve is
blocked or closed, water will spill from the drainage channel into the cargo hold.

When carrying a cargo on top of a hatch it is not necessary to fasten cleats.

Cleats prevent excessive movement of the hatch as a ship bends and flexes in a
seaway. They allow limited movement to ensure correct contact between the hatch and
its coaming, preventing hatch damage. Cargo loaded on the hatch does not secure the
hatch to its coaming.

 
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The use of sealing tapes at the cross-joints of hatch covers is common, sometimes even
being expressly called for by the shipper or charterer. =n the face of it, this seems like a
sensible additional precaution to enhance weathertightness. However, there are
negative aspects to using hatch cover sealing tape, which include:

it can lead to a false sense of security

the tape can wash off in heavy seas, just when it is needed most
the tape can obstruct drain holes trapping water in the cross-joint
complete sealing may be difficult due to the presence of cross-joint cleats or other fittings
the tape can cause accelerated corrosion and associated deterioration of the structure due to
the removal of coatings.
Proprietary tape or other material should not be used between compression bars
and rubber seals as an alternative to proper repairs. It may be that rather than
paying for expensive tape, the money could be better spent on maintenance of
the rubber seals and associated steelwork.
Similarly, high-expansion foam is often used as a Ɲbelt and bracesƞ measure to
achieve reliable weathertightness. This type of foam is hard to control in practice
and can block drain holes and drain channels, such that water leaking in can find its
way to the cargo rather than draining out as the system designers intended.
 ÷ 

÷


Maintenance of the steel-to-steel contact surface

Hatch covers are designed to make steel-to-steel contact between a defined part of the hatch
cover and coaming when closed. This steel-to-steel contact determines the amount of
compression between the hatch gasket and compression bar. Contact might be nothing more
than the hatch skirt sitting on the horizontal coaming plate, although some hatches are fitted with
metal landing pads. When the horizontal coaming plate or hatch landing pad is worn, pressure on
the hatch gasket (rubber packing) increases. If this wear is greater than 4mm, increased pressure
on the gasket will cause damage. Landing pad repair is essential.

Maintenance of rubber packing ƛ surface damage

Rubber packing that is physically damaged, cut or chafed should be renewed immediately.
The minimum length of replaced packing should be 1 metre.
Maintenance of rubber packing ƛ permanent set
Rubber packing that is permanently impressed to 75% of its design compression should be
completely replaced. The manufacturer will provide details of the design compression. A
rule of thumb to estimate design compression is to use 30% of the packingƞs thickness.
Permanently impressed rubber packing indicates worn steel-to-steel contact surfaces.
Never replace permanently impressed gaskets without checking the steel-to-steel contact
points for wear and doing repairs if they are worn.

Maintenance of rubber packing ƛ aged gaskets

=zone will age rubber. It becomes hard and loses elasticity. The entire length of aged
gasket should be replaced.
Maintenance of the double drainage system
Hatches are designed to drain away water that has penetrated the gasket. Orainage channels
should always be cleaned before hatches are closed, and kept free from rust scale and cargo
debris. Oamaged channels should be repaired immediately and then painted to prevent corrosion.
Orainage channels are located along the cross-joint and on the coaming between the compression
bar and the inner coaming.

Maintenance of non-return drain valves

Hatch coaming non-return drain valves are an essential feature of the hatch double drainage
system. They let water that has come through the hatch cover drain away. Oamaged, missing or
defective non-return drain valves should be repaired or renewed.
Maintenance of rubber seals on cement feeders, access hatches and ventilator flaps
Water can enter the cargo hold through cement feeders, hatches and ventilator covers.
Maintain them in the same way as you would hatch covers.

Maintenance of hatch cleats

Cleats and wedges hold the hatch in position with adequate gasket compression.
(Cleats are fitted with a rubber washer or Ɲgrommetƞ to aid compression). Compression of the
washer determines tension in the cleat. Washers are prone to both physical damage and age
hardening (weathering). When damaged or aged the washer loses its elasticity and should be
replaced. Some operators protect the washer and screw threads with a layer of grease or by
application of Ɲdenzoƞ tape.

Maintenance of landing pads

The size and dimensions of a landing pad are dependent on the size and weight of the hatch
cover. Landing pads are normally located adjacent to cleats. The pads are fitted to the top of
the coaming and to the side of the hatch panel. Landing pads should always be repaired to
their original design height. Correct adjustment of them can only be achieved during repair
when the ship is out of service. Some ships are provided with cassette type landing pads,
these are easily replaceable.
 




÷ 

 
The general classifications of failures and deficiencies requiring bearing removal are
overheating, vibration, turning on the shaft, binding of the shaft, noise during operation,
and lubricant leakage, bearing failures are rarely caused by the bearing itself.
Oefective bearings that leave the manufacturer are very rare and it is estimated that
defective bearings contribute to only 2 per cent of total failures. The failure is invariably
linked to symptoms of misalignment, imbalance, resonance and lubrication ƛ or the lack
of it.
Wires have for many years played an integral role in the daily operation and function of
nearly every commercial vessel afloat.



÷
÷
Wire rope is fabricated from strands of precise individual wires. The configuration of the wires and
strands making up the wire rope is designed and manufactured to be able to work together and
move with respect to one another to ensure the rope has the flexibility necessary for successful
operation under tensile loading. In addition to properties such as material strength, minimum breaking load
and corrosion protection, wire rope is identified by its construction - typically, the number of strands in the rope
and the number of wires in each strand. For example, a wire rope of 6 x 36 construction denotes a 6-strand rope,
with each strand having 36 wires. The core running through the centre of the wire may be fibre, or of wire
construction itself. For example, crane wires on ships are commonly configured with an independent wire rope
core (IWRC) or wire strand core (WSC) as opposed to a fibre core (FC).

÷
÷ is referred to as minimum breaking force or minimum breaking load.

* ÷
÷

÷÷ Some applications require use of a low rotation or rotation resistant rope.

xamples would be lifeboat fall wires, and main and auxiliary hoist crane wires. Such ropes are
often referred to as multi-strand ropes.
!÷

÷ Steel wire ropes will suffer from fatigue when working around a sheave or
drum. The rate of deterioration is influenced by the number of sheaves in the system, the diameter
of the sheaves and drum, and the loading conditions
* ÷
÷


 
Abrasive wear can take place between wire rope and sheave, and
between wire rope and drum, but the greatest cause of abrasion is often through Ɲinterferenceƞ at
the drum.
„



÷

  When the wire rope is to be used in a corrosive environment ƛ
which applies broadly across the marine environment ƛ then a galvanized coating may be
recommended, and where moisture can penetrate the rope and attack the core, plastic
impregnation could be considered. In order to minimise the effects of corrosion, it is important to
select a wire rope with a suitable manufacturing lubricant. This should be reapplied regularly
while the rope is in service.





The helix or spiral of the wires and strands in a rope is known as the lay and there are several
basic types.
 *÷
 ÷
The time interval and extent of inspection and maintenance for wires will vary depending on their
construction and use. These should be documented by the manufacturer and incorporated into the
vessels planned maintenance system by a responsible officer. Although wires of six or eight strand
construction hold up to 90% of their strength in their outer strands, it is the support provided by
the core which maintains the wires efficiency and performance. Internal examination is therefore a
vital component of any inspection regime and may be carried out by a competent person on board



„
÷


Stress, abrasion, bending, crushing and corrosion are the most common sources of damage to
wires. However, rotation, vibration, cabling and elongation may also occur under certain
circumstances. These can in extreme cases lead to catastrophic wire failure. A detailed external
examination should compare the wire against the discard criteria for each type of wire. These
criteria are determined in consultation with the manufacturer and include:




 

 ƛ The number of permissible broken wires will depend on the
function of the wire and will include the rate of breakage occurrence and grouping of broken
wires. For example, a single layer 6 x 7 fibre core wire rope used for a cargo wire should be
discarded if 2 or more wires are visibly broken in a length equivalent to 6 diameters.
!
÷

÷
 ƛ A strand that has completely fractured will require the wire to be
discarded
 


÷÷ ƛ This can be quite difficult to detect and it may be necessary to
consult a wire specialist if it is suspected. Warning signs can include a reduction in the diameter
of the rope, elongation of the lay length, signs of compression between strands along with the
appearance of fine brown powder, and an increase in the stiffness of the wire.
 -÷


÷



 ƛ
xternal corrosion is easier to detect than internal.
Oiscolouration will be accompanied by an apparent slackness between wires, which is a
result of a reduction in the cross-sectional area of the wire. Corrosion can rapidly accelerate
fatigue damage by causing surface deformation which can lead to stress cracking.
=ther discard criteria may include:
Heat damage.
Rate of permanent elongation.
Reduction in tensile strength.
Length of service.
Number of life-cycles.
jroken wires at termination points.
Reduction in diameter.

In addition to other consideration relative to the condition of a wire rope such as corrosion or distortion of
lay, the wire rope may be assessed as follows:
1. Wear limit 40% of the diameter of the individual outer wires where the condition is fairly general.
(International Standard 4309)
This condition may be recognized by the virtual elimination of the valley between adjacent wires at the
crown of the strand, or examination of the section of a broken wire.
In examining a wire rope for wear, compare a working section with a nonworking part so that flattened wire
types are recognized.

2. 10% of the wires broken in a length of 8 diameters.

3. Reduction in diameter of the wire rope in excess of 7% when elongation of the lay has occurred or a
strand is becoming buried, or reduction in wire rope diameter in excess of 10% with the lay still uniform.
 4. Combination of wear and broken wires, as follows:

$
 


÷



$

 



'
-

40% Nil
up to 35% 1%
up to 30% 5%
up to 25% 9%
under 25% 10%

The above table is aimed at preserving 80% of the strength of the wire rope so long as the wire rope is
not corroded or suffering numerous internal breaks which have not been considered. The lay of the wire
rope shall be opened at one or two places if its internal condition is doubtful.

÷ 

* 

The lifespan of any wire will depend to a great extent on the way that it is maintained on board.
The technical nature of wire manufacture demands that planned maintenance programmes be
developed in collaboration with the manufacturer before the wire is supplied to
the vessel. Where lubrication or dressing of the wire is required this should be applied prior to the
wires installation on board and reapplied at pre-determined intervals determined by the
manufacturer. Lubricants may need to be worked into the core of the rope during application if
they are to serve their intended purpose.
? easing o lub

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÷
Lubrication exists in one of three conditions:
1. joundary lubrication
2.
lastohydrodynamic lubrication
3. Full fluid-film lubrication



÷
joundary lubrication is perhaps best defined as the lubrication of surfaces by fluid films so thin that
the friction coefficient is affected by both the type of lubricant and the nature of the surface, and is
largely independent of viscosity. A fluid lubricant introduced between two surfaces may spread to a
microscopically thin film that reduces the sliding friction between the surfaces.
÷


÷
This type of lubrication provides the answer to why many mechanisms operate under conditions
that are beyond the limits forecast by theory. It was previously thought that increasing pressure
reduced oil film thickness until the aspirates broke through, causing metal-to-metal contact.
Research has shown, however, that the effect on mineral oil of high contact pressure is a large
increase in the viscosity of the lubricant. This viscosity increase combined with the elasticity of
the metal causes the oil film to act like a thin solid film, thus preventing metal-to-metal contact.

!
 

÷
This type can be illustrated by reference to the conditions existing in a properly designed plain
bearing. If the two bearing surfaces can be separated completely by a fluid film, frictional wear
of the surface is virtually eliminated. Resistance to motion will be reduced to a level governed
largely by the viscosity of the lubricating fluid

÷ 
Much highly stressed modern machinery runs under conditions in which a straight mineral oil is not
adequate.
ven the highest quality mineral oil can be unsatisfactory in response of its resistance to
oxidation and its behavior under pure boundary conditions, but it is possible to improve these
characteristics by the addition of relatively small amounts of complex chemicals.
Types of Additives:
Anti-oxidants, Anti-foam, Anti-corrosion, Anti-wear,
xtreme pressure, Oetergent/dispersant

÷ 
÷
There is a constant effort by both the supplier and consumer of lubricants to reduce the number of
grades in use. The various lubricant requirements of vessel not only limit the extent of this
rationalization but also create the continuing need for a large number of grades with different
characteristics. It is not possible to make lubricants directly from crude oil that will meet all these
demands. Instead, the refinery produces a few basic oils and these are then blended in varying
proportions, together with additives when necessary, to produce oil with the particular
characteristics required.
) 




These are lubricants for the bearings, where circulating systems are not involved. The viscosity of
these oils will vary to suit the variations in speed, load and temperature.


÷
The oils for engines have several functions to perform while in use. They must provide a lubricant
film between moving parts to reduce friction and wear, hold products of combustion in suspension
prevent the formation of sludge and assist in cooling the engine. nless the lubricant chosen fulfils
these conditions successfully, deposits and sludge will form with a consequent undesirable
increase in wear rate and decrease in engine life.


÷
 
If the effects of friction are to be minimized, a lubricant film must be maintained
continuously between the moving surfaces. Two types of motion are encountered in engines, rotary and linear. A
full fluid-film between moving parts is the ideal form of lubrication, but in practice, even with rotary motion, this
is not always achievable. At low engine speeds, for instance, bearing lubrication can be under boundary
conditions. The linear sliding motion between pistons, piston rings and cylinder walls creates lubrication problems
that are some of the most difficult to overcome in an engine. The ring is exerting a force against the cylinder wall
while at the same time the ring and piston are moving in the cylinder with a sliding action. Also, the direction of
piston movement is reversed on each stroke. To maintain full fluid oil film on the cylinder walls under these
conditions is difficult and boundary lubrication can exist. Frictional wear will occur if a lubricant film is either
absent or unable to withstand the pressures being exerted. The lubricant will then be contaminated with metal
wear particles, which will cause wear in other engine parts as they are carried round by the lubricant.


 
 
Another major cause of wear is the chemical action associated with the inevitable
acidic products of fuel combustion. This chemical wear of cylinder bores can be prevented by having an oil film
which is strongly adherent to the metal surfaces involved, and which will rapidly heal when a tiny rupture occurs.
This is achieved by the use of a chemical additive known as a corrosion inhibitor. As it is not possible to maintain
perfect combustion conditions at all times, contamination of the oil by the products of combustion is inevitable.
These contaminants can be either solid or liquid. When an engine idles or runs with an over-rich mixture
the combustion process is imperfect and soot will be formed. A quantity of this soot will pass harmlessly out with
the exhaust but some will contaminate the oil film on the pistons and cylinders and drain down into the
crankcase. If there is any water present, these solids will emulsify to form sludge which could then block the oil
ways. Filters are incorporated into the oil-circulation system to remove the solid contaminants together with any
atmospheric dust, which bypasses the air filters. =ne of the liquid contaminants is water, the presence of which is
brought about by the fact that when fuel is burnt it produces approximately its own weight in water. When the
engine is warm, this water is converted into steam, which passes harmlessly out of the exhaust. However,
with cold running or start-up conditions this water is not converted and drains into the sump. Having dissolved
some of the combustion gases, it will be acidic in nature and will form sludge. Another liquid contaminant is
unburned fuel. A poor quality fuel, for example, may contain high boiling point constituents that will not all burn
off in the combustion process and will drain into the sump
) 


÷

xtremely high pressures are developed between meshing teeth as, in theory, they only have point or line
contact. Together with the sliding between mating surfaces, which is always present, it is clear that, if there is
metal-to-metal contact, rapid wear will occur. The function of the lubricant is to provide and maintain a
separating film under all the variations in speed, load and temperature. It must also act as a coolant and protect
the gears against corrosion. The lubrication of gears is not a simple matter, because of their shape and variability
of motion. Fundamental factors which affect their lubrication are gear characteristics, materials, temperature,
speed, loading, method of applying the lubricant and environment.


  It is generally true to say that, as speed increases, the oil viscosity decreases, that is, if
hydrodynamic conditions exist. Relatively low viscosity oil will allow the oil to spread rapidly over the tooth
surfaces before meshing and, in the case of forced lubrication, ease circulation. In the case of bath lubrication, it
will eliminate the oil drag effect.
 If a gear is subjected to shock loading, the high pressures that are rapidly applied may rupture the oil
film. These peak pressures are of greater importance than average tooth loading. To prevent sudden wear of the
teeth it is essential to maintain a lubricant film, and using extreme pressure additives does this. Continuous and
severe overloading may cause the oil film to break down with disastrous results




  In summary, it can be said that the best choice of lubricant for a gearbox depends on the service
conditions. If leakage is a problem, or if, during shutdown, the maintenance of a thick film of lubricant is
necessary to inhibit corrosion and prevent Ɲdry-stateƞ operation, greases show to advantage. If generation of heat
and consequent excessive temperatures are a problem, users will find it better to use liquid lubricants, which
have the advantage of high rates of heat transfer.
) 

 




A gearbox can be regarded as having four main components:
ƛ gears, casing, bearings and lubricant ƛ and failure can be caused by shortcomings in any one of them. ?ear
teeth that are inaccurate through design or manufacture can cause poor meshing, noisy running, overheating or
surface failure due to overloading.
xcessive flexing of the casing would allow misalignment of the gear shafts,
which would also lead to surface failure due to overheating.
nsuitable or badly fitted bearings may fail because of their own surface damage, and this creates shaft
misalignments and produces debris that can quickly damage the gear teeth. Lubrication failure can arise from
unsuitable lubricant or from the inability (through bad design) of the lubricant to get where it is needed. ?ear
failure is rarely attributable to the type of materials selected. More often, it is the result of defects such as cracks,
casting inclusions and poor heat-treatment. jadly casehardened steel might fail by the flaking of its hard
outer layers and a through-hardened gear might have hard or soft patches. Oistortions due to sub-standard
hardening can modify tooth profiles to such an extent that load concentrations will break the ends of teeth.
The term Ɲfailureƞ is relative, because severe operating conditions affect different materials in different ways. An
example of this might be seen in a high-reduction gear unit whose pinion is very small and is therefore made of
harder material, to avoid premature wear relative to the larger gear. In arduous running, the two gears might not
display the same kind of wear pattern

÷


The three most likely types of operational service misuse are:
overloading, incorrect lubrication and the presence of contaminants.
=verloading is primarily due to the use of too small or too weak a gear unit, and this may be the result of false
economy (installing an available unit for an application beyond its capacity) or failure to cater for the effects of
shock loads in calculations of power rating. Incorrect lubrication can take many forms. =ne example is the use of
oil that is too thick or too thin, or is incompatible with the metal of the gears. =thers include unsuitable methods
of application, bad filtration, inadequate maintenance, filling to the wrong level, and poor standards of storage
and handling.

jacklash gear backlash is the play between teeth measured at the pitch circle. It is the distance between the
involutes of the mating gear teeth, as illustrated:

jacklash is necessary to provide the running clearance needed to prevent binding of the mating gears, which can
result in heat generation, noise, abnormal wear, overload, and/or failure of the drive. In addition to the need to
prevent binding, some backlash occurs in gear systems because of the dimensional tolerances needed for cost
effective manufacturing. The increase in backlash that results from tooth wear does not adversely affect
operation with non-reversing drives, or drives with continuous load in one direction. However, for reversing
drives and drives where timing is critical, excessive backlash that results from wear usually cannot be tolerated.
Fluid power systems have developed rapidly over the past thirty-five years. Today, fluid power technology is used
in every phase of human existence. The extensive use of hydraulics to transmit power is due the fact that
properly constructed fluid power systems possess a number of favorable characteristics. They eliminate the need
for complicated systems of gears, cams, and levers. Motion can be transmitted without the slack or mechanical
looseness inherent in the use of solid machine parts. The fluids used are not subject to breakage as are
mechanical parts, and the mechanisms are not subjected to great wear.



The purpose of a hydraulic pump is to supply the flow of fluid required by a hydraulic system. The pump does
not create system pressure. System pressure is created by a combination of the flow generated by the pump and
the resistance to flow created by friction and restrictions within the system. As the pump provides flow, it
transmits a force to the fluid. When the flow encounters resistance, this force is changed into pressure.
Resistance to flow is the result of a restriction or obstruction in the flow path. This restriction is normally the work
accomplished by the hydraulic system, but there can also be restrictions created by thelines, fittings or
components within the system. Thus, the load imposed on the system or the action of a pressure regulating
valve controls the system pressure.



Selection and care of the hydraulic fluid for a machine will have an important effect on how it performs and on
the life of the hydraulic components. As a power transmission medium, the fluid must flow easily through lines
and component passages. Too much resistance to flow creates considerable power loss. The fluid also must be
as incompressible as possible so that action is instantaneous when the pump is started or a valve shifts.



÷÷ may be described as any foreign material or substance whose presence in the
fluid is capable of adversely affecting system performance or reliability. It may assume many different forms,
including liquids, gases, and solid matter of various composition, sizes, and shapes. Solid matter is the type most
often found in hydraulic systems and is generally referred to as particulate contamination. Contamination is
always present to some degree, even in new, unused fluid, but must be kept below a level that will adversely
affect system operation. Hydraulic contamination control consists of requirements, techniques, and practices
necessary to minimize and control fluid contamination.
There are many types of contaminants which are harmful to hydraulic systems and liquids. These contaminants
may be divided into two different classes ƛ particulate and fluid.

Particulate contamination This class of contaminants includes organic, metallic solid, and inorganic solid
contaminants.

=rganic Wear, oxidation, or polymerization produces organic solids or semisolids found in hydraulic systems.
Minute particles of =-rings, seals, gaskets, and hoses are present, due to wear or chemical reactions. Synthetic
products, such as neoprene, silicones, and hypalon, though resistant to chemical reaction with hydraulic fluids,
produce small wear particles.

Metallic solids Metallic contaminants are usually present in a hydraulic system and will range in size from
microscopic particles to particles readily visible to the naked eye. These particles are the result of wearing and
scoring of bare metal parts and plating materials, such as silver and chromium. jecause of their continuous high-
speed internal movement, hydraulic pumps usually contribute most of the metallic particulate contamination
present in hydraulic systems.

Inorganic solids This contaminant group includes dust, paint particles, dirt, and silicates.
For example, the wet piston shaft of a hydraulic actuator may draw some of these foreign materials into the
cylinder past the wiper and dynamic seals, and the contaminant materials are then dispersed in the hydraulic
fluid. Contaminants may also enter the hydraulic fluid during maintenance when tubing, hoses, fittings, and
components are disconnected or replaced
Fluid contamination Air, water, solvent, and other foreign fluids are in the class of fluid contaminants.

Air - Hydraulic fluids are adversely affected by dissolved, entrained, or free air. Air may be introduced through
improper maintenance or because of system design. Any maintenance operation that involves breaking into the
hydraulic system, such as disconnecting or removing a line or component, will invariably result in some air being
introduced into the system. Another lesser-known but major source of air is air that is sucked into the system
past actuator piston rod seals. This occurs when the piston rod that is stroked by some external means while the
actuator itself is not pressurized.
Water - Water is a serious contaminant of hydraulic systems. Hydraulic fluids are adversely affected by dissolved,
emulsified, or free water. Water contamination may result in the formation of ice, which impedes the operation of
valves, actuators, and other moving parts. Water can also cause the formation of oxidation products and
corrosion of metallic surfaces.
Solvents - Solvent contamination is a special form of foreign fluid contamination in which the original
contaminating substance is a chlorinated solvent. Chlorinated solvents or their residues may, when introduced
into a hydraulic system, react with any water present to form highly corrosive acids.
Foreign-fluids Foreign fluids other than water and chlorinated solvents can seriously contaminate hydraulic
systems. This type of contamination is generally a result of lube oil, engine fuel, or incorrect hydraulic fluid being
introduced inadvertently into the system during servicing.

Important - It is extremely important that the different types of hydraulic fluids are not mixed in one system. If
different types hydraulic fluids are mixed, the characteristics of the fluid required for a specific purpose are lost.
Mixing the different types of fluids usually results in a heavy, gummy deposit that will clog passages and require
a major cleaning. In addition, seals and packing installed for use with one fluid are usually not compatible with
other fluids and damage to the seals will result.
Steel structure of a vessel is prone to corrosion throughout its service life. Oue allowance must be
made at the new-building stage, and by periodic maintenance to provide effective corrosion
protection to ensure continued structural integrity of the vessel.


„  )
Paints are mixtures of many raw materials, each of which in turn has been manufactured to give certain specific
properties. jasically, however, paints consist of three major components and many additives which are included
in minor properties. The major components are:
jinder (other terms used include: vehicle, medium, resin, film, polymer)
Pigment and extender
Solvent
=f these, only the first two form the final dry paint film. Solvent is necessary purely to facilitate application and
initial film formation; it leaves the film by evaporation and can therefore be considered an expensive waste
product.
*
jinders are the film forming components of paint. They are predominant in determining the principle
characteristics of the coating, both physical and chemical. Paints are generally named after their binder
component (e.g. epoxy paints, chlorinated rubber paints, alkyd paints, etc.). The function of the binder is to give
a permanent continuous film which is responsible for adhesion to the surface and which will contribute to the
overall resistance of the coating to the environment. jinders used in the manufacture of paints fall into two
classes, Thermoset and Thermoplastic. This classification is solely dependent upon how they form a film, and
whether that film formation is reversible. In the case of liquid paints, they change state, i.e. from a liquid to a
solid. This transformation in paint is known as drying or curing. It will be readily appreciated that a
Thermoset coating when dry will be chemically quite different from the paint in the can.
Thermoset coatings are not affected by solvent wipe, once cured.
With a Thermoplastic coating, the dry film and the wet paint differ only in solvent content, but chemically these
remain essentially similar. If solvent is applied to a thermoplastic coating, it will soften and try to return to its
original state.
 TH
R=S
T C=ATIN?S
Air Orying Resins
=leoresinous Varnishes
Alkyd Resins

poxy
ster Resins TH
RM=PLASTIC C=ATIN?S
rethane =il/Alkyd Resins Chlorinated Rubber Resins
Silicone Alkyd Resins Vinyl Resins

poxy Resins jituminous jinders
Polyurethane Resins Cellulose Oerivatives

In liquid paints where solvent is involved, drying is These types of paint binders are simple solutions of
considered a two stage process. joth stages actually various resins or polymers dissolved in suitable
occur together but at different rates. solvent(s). Orying is simply effected by the loss of the
Stage =ne: Solvent is lost from the film by solvent by evaporation. This is termed physical drying
evaporation and the film becomes dry to touch. as no chemical change takes place.
Stage Two: The film progressively becomes more The resulting film is therefore always readily soluble in
chemically complex by one of the following methods: the original solvent and can also be softened by heat.
1) Reaction with atmospheric oxygen, known as
oxidation.
2) Reaction with an added chemical curing agent.
3) Reaction with water (moisture in the atmosphere).
4) Artificial heating.
5) Radiation curing (e.g. ultraviolet).
The films formed by the above methods are chemically
different to the original binders and will not re-dissolve
in their original solvent.
 )



*
Pigments and extenders are used in paints in the form of fine powders. These are dispersed into the binder to
particle sizes of about 5-10 microns for finishing paints and approximately 50 microns for primers.
These materials can be divided into the following types:




Anticorrosive pigments To prevent corrosion of metals by chemical and electrochemical means.
jarrier pigments To increase impermeability of the paint film
Coloring pigments To give permanent color

xtending pigments To help give film properties required

 
Solvents are used in paints principally to facilitate application. Their function is to dissolve the binder and
consequently reduce the viscosity of the paint to a level which is suitable for the various methods of application,
i.e. brush, roller, conventional spray, airless spray, dipping, etc. After application, the solvent evaporates and
plays no further part in the final paint film, the solvent therefore becomes a high cost waste material. Liquids
used as solvents in paints can be described in one of three ways:
True Solvents
A liquid which will dissolve the binder and is completely compatible with it.
Latent Solvent
A liquid which is not a true solvent. However, when mixed with a true solvent, the mix has stronger dissolving
properties than the true solvent alone.
Oiluent Solvent
A liquid which is not a true solvent. Normally used as a blend with true solvent/latent solvent mixes to reduce the
cost. jinders will only tolerate a limited quantity of diluent.
 „**
Corrosion of metals may be defined as an electromechanical process in which the metal reacts with
its environment to form an oxide, or other compound, similar to the ore from which it was originally
won. The majority of metals are found in nature in the mineral state, that is, in their stable oxidized
condition as oxides, chlorides, carbonates, sulfates, sulfides, etc. The extraction of a metal from the
appropriate mineral involves a reduction process in which a great deal of energy is absorbed. As a
consequence of this large energy input the metal is in a high energy condition and will endeavor to
return to its former stable oxidized low energy state as quickly as environmental conditions will
allow. It is this energy difference between the pure metal and its oxidized forms which is the
driving force for corrosion of the metal. Many corrosion products show a chemical similarity to the
corresponding minerals. Iron, for example, is extracted from its ores, mainly oxide and carbonate,
by reduction with carbon in a blast furnace. In the presence of moisture the iron metal so obtained
is oxidized rust, which if analyzed is found to have a composition similar to the mineral ore.
 

„


niform Corrosion
The most common type of corrosion encountered is the general attack of a more or less uniform nature. The loss
of metal over the entire surface is fairly uniform. This is the easiest form of corrosion to combat or allow for
because structural life time can be predicted, a feature which is not possible with the following corrosion forms.
Pitting Corrosion
The characteristic of this type of attack is that it is extremely localized and the penetration is deep in relation to
the area attacked. Pitting is one of the most dangerous forms of corrosion and often occurs in places where it
cannot be readily seen. Pitting corrosion is one of the most common forms that can be noted in ballast tanks. It
is a localised corrosion that occurs on bottom plating, other horizontal surfaces and at structural details that trap
water, particularly the aft bays of tank bottoms. For coated surfaces the attack produces deep and relatively
small
diameter pits that can lead to hull penetration. Pitting of uncoated tanks, as it progresses, forms shallow but very
wide scabby patches (e.g. 300m mm diameter); the appearance resembles a condition of general corrosion.
Crevice Corrosion
Intense localized corrosion, ranging from small pits to extensive attack over the whole surface. The most
common case occurs in cracks and generally on steel surfaces covered by scales and deposits. Typical examples are
ship welding seams, pipe supports and bolts.

rosion corrosion
Corrosion due to erosion occurs when abrasives (i.e. sand or mud) held in the sea water impinges, with a certain
velocity, an existing corrosion cell. The abrasives remove the accumulation of corrosion products keeping the metal
clean and the corrosion active.

Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)

All metals, even stainless steel, may incur corrosion from microbiologically influenced corrosion, MIC. This type of
corrosion has been in existence for a long time and is either completely overlooked or goes unrecognized. However,
it is gaining attention in the marine environment as a leading cause of corrosion in cargo, ballast and void spaces
  
÷ 

„



Heat transfer
In many cases where heat transfer is involved the metal wall temperature experienced in service is higher than
the surrounding atmosphere temperature. This, and the actual heat transfer through the material, must be
taken into account since both factors can increase corrosion rates significantly. Fuel oil tanks adjacent to
ballast tanks.

Condensation corrosion
Condensation can form on cargo hold bulkheads, under hatch covers, at the top sections of ballast tanks, as
heat is lost. This condensation can absorb corrosive gases, creating localized corrosion effects of greater
severity than the standard environment that is normally present.

Corrosive atmospheres
Corrosive species in the atmospheres include water, salts and gases. Clean atmospheres contain little other
than oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour and a small quantity of carbon dioxide. These species are virtually non-
corrosive to any of the common constructional materials for vessel at normal temperatures. Steel is susceptible
to corrosion in even fairly clean air where water can exist as liquid.

Corrosion under lagging

Thermal insulation of vessels and pipework usually employs glass fiber or foamed polyurethane products. In
their pure forms these pose little corrosion risk. ?enerally, they are contaminated with leachable acids and/or
chloride ions. Chloride-free lagging can be specified and this should be used for contact with metals which are
susceptible to chloride pitting or chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking.

Corrosion when carrying timber on deck

Metals in contact with or in the proximity of timber can suffer enhanced corrosion attack. Some species of
timber, especially oak, contain high levels of acetic acid. These are volatile and cause corrosion of nearby
metals, especially iron, steel and lead alloys. Metals in contact with timber can be corroded by the acetic acid
of the timber and by treatment chemicals present in it. Treatment chemicals include ammonium sulfate
and ammonium phosphate flame-retardants. These are particularly corrosive towards steel.
Stress Corrosion
The presence of tensile stress in a metal surface renders that surface more susceptible to many kinds of
corrosion
than the same material in a non-stressed condition. Similarly, the presence of compressive stress in the surface
layer can be beneficial for corrosion behavior. Tensile stresses can be residual, from a forming or welding
operation, or operational from heatingƛcooling, fillingƛemptying or pressurizingƛdepressurizing cycles.
The presence of a tensile stress from whatever origin places some materials at risk from stress corrosion
cracking. The presence of stress raisers, including sharp corners and imperfect welds, produces locally high stress
levels. These should be taken into account when inspecting the ships structure.

„


„÷

There is no paint available on the market today that is capable of withstanding the type of physical
damage inflicted in cargo holds by grabs, bobcats, bulldozers, etc, particularly where such damages
result in the deformation of the steel itself. As a result of these impacts and abrasions, paint is
damaged or removed from the cargo holds and also from the reverse side of the steel plating, in
areas such as the ballast tanks, stools and outer hull.

Failure of Cargo Hold Coatings by [Activeơ Cargoes

The number of coating damages and sags varies depending upon the local conditions within the cargo hold.
Factors such as coating type and the extent of cure, cargo type and shape and cargo corrosivity will all have an
influence on the extent of damage. =ther factors such as the method of loading the cargo, the sea states during
the voyage and the quantity of water applied to or associated with the cargo are also important.
What is an [activeơ cargo? Iit can be defined as one that physically affects the cargo hold coating and directly
influences the corrosion reaction on the underlying steel.
xamples of active cargoes are coal, coke, bauxite,
sulphur and petcoke.
There are many cargoes transported by vessels that will cause accelerated corrosion of the steel if they are in
direct contact with the metal. However cargoes that are soft and of low density are unlikely to cause direct
physical damage to the paint and therefore they will only accelerate corrosion of the steel and subsequent
coating breakdown at sites of existing coating damage or failure. Hard, dry cargoes such as ingots or
ferrochrome do not tend to produce this type of damage, but cargo cycles that include iron ore can exacerbate
the damage caused by the previous cargoes.

Active cargo corrosion occurs in a sequence of events that results in coating damage, often with the
characteristic tree pattern, together with steel corrosion. The first stage of the damage to the paint occurs when
the sharp, hard and angular cargo scratches into the coating due to settlement during both loading and the
voyage.
ventually the cargo cuts through sites of weak paint to the steel and exposes the metal to the cargo
environment.

It is first seen as a small puncture in the coating, which creates a pathway

for water to reach the steel. Water associated with the cargo can
permeate along the interface between the paint and the steel at the site
where the coating has been damaged, resulting in the loss of adhesion of
the coating.
How do the active cargoes cause coating failure?

Two major factors are required, a suitably hard and abrasive cargo and a coating in a susceptible
condition. The cargo hold coating may be susceptible to damage by active cargoes due to a
number of factors.

1. An incorrect choice of paint (that is a coating that is not designed to withstand abrasions and
impacts) will quickly fail in a cargo hold environment when active cargoes are carried.

2. If the application and/or curing conditions for the coating were not suitable, for example the
curing temperature was too low or there may have been inadequate ventilation during the
curing period, then the coating may remain soft when it enters service and will fail prematurely.

3. If the quality of the surface preparation of the steel is not sufficiently good, then contamination
may remain on the steel and be over coated by the paint. When suitable conditions of water
and oxygen are present, corrosion can quickly initiate and propagate at contamination sites,
generating rust under the paint and ultimately levering the coating from the steel.

4. The presence of water in the coating can also result in plasticisation of some paints, making
them easier to deform.

5. Increased temperatures can cause some types of coating to soften and again this will result in
deformation and sags when in contact with active cargoes.
 ÷



 
Most of the important properties of a paint are determined by its binder and the manner in which
the film is formed. Function according basic characteristics:
Anticorrosives
Shop Primers/Holding Primers
Antifoulants
ANTIC=RR=SIV
S
In corrosion prevention with paints, three main principles are employed:
Create a 



that keeps out charged ions and retards the penetration of water and oxygen.

nsure that water on its passage through the paint coating takes on special properties or compounds inhibiting
itƞs corrosive action.

nsure metallic contact between the steel and a less noble metal, such as zinc, affords cathodic protection of
the steel by utilizing the galvanic effect.
Typical representatives are:
jitumen
Coal tar epoxy

poxy

SH=P PRIM
RS
Shop primers, also referred to as pre-construction primers, are anticorrosives designed for application in
automated plants to plates or profiles prior to assembly or construction.
Types of Shop Primers
The most widely accepted shop primers are:
Poly Vinyl jutyral (PVj)

poxy Iron =xide
Zinc
poxy
Zinc Silicate
ANTIF= LIN?S
Shipsƞ underwater hulls are painted to protect the building material, usually steel, and prevent undue roughness.
The effect of roughness on the hull area is an increase in resistance to movement, resulting in reduced speed
and/or increased fuel consumption. The penalty is a higher operating cost.
Fouling
The most severe hull roughness is that caused by fouling, the growth of various marine plants, animals, and
organisms. Some 10% of the fuel bill for the merchant vessel, it is estimated, is caused by fouling.
Antifoulant Paints
The antifouling paints used today are based on physically drying binders. They prevent fouling by releasing
bioactive materials that interfere with the biological processes of the fouling organisms.
Classification of Antifouling Paints
Antifouling paints differ basically in their load or concentration of bioactive material and in the mechanism
controlling the release of that material. According to the manner in which bioactive material is leached from the
coating, antifoulants may be grouped as the following:
Soluble Matrix Types (non polishing)
Insoluble Matrix Types (non polishing)
Self Polishing Types
Soluble Matrix (non polishing) Insoluble Matrix (non polishing) Self Polishing
?eneral Properties ?eneral Properties ?eneral Properties

ffective protection rather limited (up to Medium extended effective protection Medium to very high effective
approximately 12 months). (up to 24 to 30 protection against fouling (up to 48
=nly antifoulant type that can be safely months, depending on trading pattern). months).
applied over Re-activation (removal of empty
xcellent mechanical strength and
soft, bitumen, primers. matrix) possible stability.
The binder oxidizes and is sensitive to sunlight. through scrubbing
ffective life is directly proportional
Therefore the vessel must be launched or floated An empty matrix, because of its to applied film thickness.
soon after curing. sponge like properties, No sealer coat required at
Sensitive to oil pollution (mineral and fish oils) should be scaled off prior to a fresh or subsequent dry dockings .
new coat of antifoulant is applied. Remaining antifoulant becomes an
effective part of the new system (can
overcoat).
 



÷
?ood surface preparation is, perhaps, the most important part of the entire coating job, in that the
greatest percentage of coating failures can be traced directly to poor surface preparation. No paint
system will give optimum performance over a poorly prepared surface. All paint systems will fail
prematurely unless the surface has been properly prepared to receive the coating material. If
contaminants such as oil, grease, dirt, salts, chemicals, etc. are not removed from the surface
to be coated, adhesion will be compromised, and/or osmotic blistering will occur. Loose rust left on
the surface will cause a loosening of the coating and eventual loss of adhesion. Also, good surface
preparation roughens the surface to assist in obtaining the proper surface profile, thereby
promoting better coating performance in the areas of adhesion, abrasion resistance, chemical and
water resistance, as well as the long term cosmetic appearance of the paint system.
*
*



*



÷
„ 


÷
„  ÷

÷
Solvent Cleaning White Metal
Hand Tool Cleaning Near-White Metal
Power Tool Cleaning Commercial
Power Tool Cleaning to jare Metal jrush-=ff
  ÷
„ 
A process of using solvents, expanded more recently to include other cleaning compounds, to remove oil, grease,
and other contaminants. This process is best utilized as a preliminary step in the total surface preparation
procedure.
Solvents are no longer the recommended cleaner, as they may become an impediment rather than a help, if not
properly removed.


„ 

This method is the slowest and usually the least satisfactory method of surface preparation. Wire brushing, in
fact, can make the surface worse by polishing rather than cleaning the rusted surface. Scrapers, chipping
hammers, or chisels can be used to remove loose, non adherent pain, rust or scale, but is usually considered
incomplete. For this reason, the area to be prepared should be sufficiently small to allow for the time required



„ 
The advantage of power (electrical or air) tool methods over hand tools, is that they are generally less laborious,
but, as with manual, easier to feather loose coatings back to tight impact paint. The effectiveness of cleaning will
depend on the effort and endurance of the operator, and becomes especially tiring when working above shoulder
height. Some of the more popular methods are as follows:

Rotary Wire jrushing

This method does have some value, depending upon the condition of the surface. Loose [powderyơ rust can be
removed but hard scale will resist the abrasion of the wire bristles. When rust scale is intact and adherent to the
substrate, rotary wire brushing tends to merely burnish the surface of the rust scale, but does not remove it.
Care should be exercised, in that the burnished surface may give the appearance of a well cleaned surface, which
is often misleading.

Mechanical Oescaling
Needle ?uns, Vet Chisels, and other pounding type instruments are effective to some degree in removing thick
rust and scale. The action of these types of devices is dependent upon cutting blade or point pounding the
surface and breaking away the scale. Cleaning is only effective at the actual points of contact. The intermediate
areas are only partially cleaned, because the brittle scale disintegrates, but the lowermost layer of rust and scale
remains attached to the substrate. This may be sufficient for surface tolerant epoxies.
Rotary Power Oiscing
=f the power tool methods, this one is the most effective in producing a surface suitable for the application of
most types of coating systems, especially for most on-board maintenance. While effective, discing should
generally be limited to localized areas of fairly severe corrosion or more widespread light corrosion, because,
once again, this method can be quite slow and labor intensive. Normally silicon carbide discs are used and the
grade selected to suit the conditions of the surface to be abraded. It is important to change the discs at regular
intervals in order to maintain efficiency. Care should be exercised in the selection of the grit size and type of disc
to be utilized, so that the surface is not excessively smoothed, thereby reducing the ability of the paint to adhere.
Irregular and pitted surfaces may require a combination of the various power tool cleaning methods to maximize
effectiveness.



÷
„ 
2÷

This is by far the most efficient and effective method of removing paint, rust, mill scale, etc. from substrates,
also, it is generally considered to provide the proper surface profile to promote coating adherence. However,
compared to the methods discussed above, it is also the most expensive method. For this reason, it is chosen to
reduce the time for surface preparation, or to achieve standards of cleanliness that are only attainable by some
type of abrasive blasting.

Swedish Sa 3
White Metal jlast Cleaned Surface Finish.

Swedish Sa 2 1/2
Near White jlast Cleaned Surface Finish.

Swedish Sa 2
Commercial jlast Cleaned Surface Finish.

Swedish Sa 1
jrush =ff jlast Cleaned Surface.
 ÷

, ÷÷


÷
As discussed previously dry abrasive blasting is the most commonly used method of surface preparation.
Accompanied with this style of preparation are some known problems. In general with abrasive blasting the
resultant flying abrasive particles and drifting dust may damage equipment, clog filters and create possible
environmental problems.
Also, it is possible to trap contaminants on the surface of the substrate being cleaned.
It should be noted that hydroblasting does not produce a profile on the steel surface as does abrasive blasting. It
does, however, expose the original abrasive blast surface profile. To be an effective agent the water being used
should be pure enough that it does not contaminate the surface being cleaned.
In general however, water-jetting will only remove loose rust, loose scale and loose paint at an acceptable
production rate. It will not remove mill-scale or "black rust[ (magnetite-scale). Painting over such scale will bring
the performance expectation down to that of hand chipping.

Water treatments below 68 bar (1000 psi) are not surface preparation methods but cleaning methods. They are
defined as Low-pressure Washing, having water pressure below 68 bar while
High-pressure Water Cleaning (HPWC) are termed the treatments having pressures from 68 to 680 bar (1000 to
10000 psi).
ltra-high-pressure water-jetting ( HP-WV) is defined as having a pressure in excess of 1500 bars (22,000 psi).
Normally, such tools operate at 2000 bars (30,000 psi) or more. HP-WV produce better and faster cleaning than
the water-jetting method does. This pressure removes most contaminants, such as salts, dirt, grease and rust
scale. tilized sometimes in this type of preparation are inhibitors which are added to the water to help prevent
flash rusting prior to coating being applied.
The service life expectancy span for HP-WV can be 2 to 10 years depending on
the cleanliness achieved, the amount of re-rusting and moisture control during painting.

Advantages to hydroblasting are:

Water as a cleaning material is generally available in inexpensive large quantities.
Lack of contamination of surrounding areas because there are no abrasive particles.
Lack of dust.
  ÷

÷

÷
The objective in applying paint coatings are to provide films which will give protection and,
normally to a lesser extent, decoration to the structure being painted. The variables which govern
the success of any application are:
Surface preparation
Film build and total thickness of system
Methods of application
Atmospheric conditions during application

 ÷


÷
The normal methods of application of paint coatings are by:
jrush
Roller
Conventional Spray
Airless Spray
High-Volume, Low Pressure spray (HVLP)
=ther methods may also be encountered, such as: electrostatic, powder coatings application, dipping and
pouring



÷
The [historicalơ method of paint application is not as fast as spraying or rolling and is generally used for the
coating of small complicated or complex areas or where the need for Ɲcleanƞ working with no overspray precludes
the use of spray application. When painting it is important to dip the brush in paint frequently and not to Ɲover-
brushƞ the surface, as this will result in large variations in film thickness, the inherent problem with brush
application. Choice of brush, both size, length and type of bristle, and shape, are important, and the type of paint
being applied will modify the selection. Thus, large flat brushes are normally used for the majority of purposes,
but round brushes are better for painting bolt-heads and Ɲdifficultƞ areas. Special brushes are available with offset
heads and long handles to facilitate painting the Ɲbacksƞ of structures and inaccessible areas.
jrush application is most suited to the slower drying, normal build type of coatings, and will not always be
suitable for the more sophisticated Ɲfast-dryingƞ or Ɲhi-buildƞ materials. It is often not possible to achieve the
required film thickness in the same number of coats as with spray application, and multi-coat applications are
necessary to give the specified film build. Stripe coats on weld seams of new buildings.
*


÷
Roller application is faster than brush on large, flat surfaces, such as tank sides and tops and walkways and deck
areas, but it is not so good for Ɲdifficultƞ areas. It is hard to control film thickness, however, and care must always
be taken that the coating is not Ɲover-rolledƞ in the same manner that it can be Ɲover-brushedƞ. Choice of roller
pile (short or long hair, sponge or lambs wool) is dependent on type of coating and roughness and irregularity of
surface being coated. Not recommended way of paint application if Spray equipment is available.
„ ÷


The equipment is relatively simple, paint and air are fed separately to the spray gun and mixed at the nozzle,
where the paint is atomized and air is mixed with these droplets forming a fine mist of paint which is carried by
the air pressure to the work surface.


 


jy far the most important and efficient method for the application of heavy duty marine coatings.
As the name implies, it is a technique of spray application which does not rely on the mixing of the paints with air
to provide atomization, which is achieved by forcing the paint through a specially designed nozzle or Ɲtipƞ at very
high pressures
 „÷


The coating failures is the coating degradations within the intended coating service life.
The main types are identified in the following items.
„

This is a break-down in which the cracks penetrate at least one layer and which may be expected
to result ultimately in complete failure. Such cracks may result from:
over thicknesses of paint,
plastic structural deformations exceeding the elongation properties of the paint film
localised fatigue stress, due to non appropriate design
 !
2

 

It consists in the lifting of the paint from the underlying surface in the form of flakes or scales. The
causes of a loss of adhesion may be the following ones:
unsatisfactory surface preparation,
incompatibility with underlayer,
contamination between layers,
excessive curing time between layers
 ÷

It appears as a bubble formation scattered on the surface of a paint film, with a diameter ranging
from 3-4 mm to 20-30 mm. jlisters contain liquid, vapour or gas.
jlistering is a localised loss of adhesion and lifting of the film, coming generally from osmosis due
to one of the following causes:
Solvent retention,
Improper coating application,
Soluble salt contamination under the paint film, due to an insufficient cleaning of the surface.

It is to be noted that in most cases there is no corrosion in an unbroken blister and

many years of protection can be obtained if these blisters are left untouched.
- 

  ÷

÷
÷

veryone knows about the effect of corrosion on a shipƞs hull, but few people consider
the effect of corrosion on piping. Pipes pose a hidden danger, a danger that is often
forgotten about.
Pipes are silent workers, conveying fluid or allowing air to enter or to leave a space, and
are the means by which many control systems operate. They are unnoticed until pipe
failure occurs and a machine stops operating, a space floods or oil is spilled. Pipes
penetrate almost every enclosed space, as well as the shell both above and below the
waterline, and the weather deck. There is no system on a ship that has such enormous
potential to cause fire, pollution, flooding or even total loss.
The majority of shipsƞ pipes are constructed of ferrous material, a material that is
attacked by all forms of corrosion. As a ship ages, so does the piping system.
Maintenance is not always easy, because pipes, unlike the hull, are difficult to examine
because of their numbers and inaccessibility. It is practically impossible to maintain
them internally, where most corrosion takes place, and at times just as difficult to
maintain a pipeƞs external surface. As a result, pipes can receive minimum maintenance,
and pipe failure is often the result.
?????
ƠWhen is it necessary to replace a pipe?ơ, ƠWhen it bursts.ơ Agree or Not ?
 The majority of shipsƞ pipes are made of mild steel.
Flow rate, viscosity and pressure of fluid being carried determine a pipeƞs
diameter.
The water circulating in cooling pipes will corrode them over time.
Pipes passing through tanks containing liquid are exposed to corrosive attack on
both surfaces.
Visual checks of the external surfaces of a pipe will not indicate its condition
because it could be internally corroded and have a reduced wall thickness.
Most abrasive corrosion and consequent internal thinning happens where the pipe
bends and at elbows.
Liquid flowing quickly will be turbulent as a result of fluid separation and
cavitation. Flow turbulence in a pipe will cause pitting. A pipe with the correct
diameter for the job will eliminate turbulence.
A pressure test of 1.5 times design pressure is a strength test; a test at the design
pressure is a tightness test. Pressure testing can show the small cracks and holes
that will not be found by a visual examination.
Pipes are held in place by supports or clips that prevent movement from shock
loads and vibration. Pipe failure is common when pipes are allowed to vibrate.
Pipes carrying flammable liquids have as few joints as possible and these are
shielded to prevent leaks from coming into contact with hot surfaces.
Mechanical joints are not normally fitted on pipes carrying flammable liquids.

÷ 
The bilge system is used to remove small quantities of fluid that have leaked or
condensed into a dry space. The system serves the machinery spaces, cargo
holds, cofferdams, voids, stores, tunnels and pump rooms.
ach space has its
own piping but the pump is likely to be shared.
The capacity of a bilge system is defined by the diameter of the bilge main and
pump capacity for the volume of the enclosed space.
In cargo ships where the engine room provides bilge pumping, the whole ship is
the Ɲenclosed spaceƞ. The diameter of the bilge main is:
d = 25+1.68ƹL(j+O)
where,
d = internal diameter of bilge main, in millimetres
L = length between the shipƞs perpendiculars, in metres
j = extreme breadth, in metres
O = moulded depth, in metres
Cargo ships are required to have two bilge pumps with non-return
valves fitted to prevent back-flow or cross-flow.
Mud boxes and strum boxes (line filters) are fitted at the ends and
in bilge lines to stop debris being sucked into the pipe.
÷
÷ 
jallast is taken on to increase a shipƞs draught, particularly the stern draught,
when sailing without cargo. jallast piping is usually made of ordinary mild steel. A
shipƞs size determines the capacity of its ballast system.

3

÷
÷ 
Piping is used extensively throughout a ship for fire control purposes. The specific
features of shipsƞ fire-fighting equipment are governed by the Safety of Life at Sea
Convention (S=LAS). Many S=LAS requirements have been put into classification
society rules. They include:

!


Mild steel piping fitted with hydrants for hoses where saltwater is used for manual
firefighting. The fire main is designed for a typical working pressure of about 10
bar. Pipes in the fire main are affected by corrosion both externally and internally.
Pipes are joined with flanged connections.

„

Relatively small bore hot galvanised mild steel piping designed to withstand the
surge loads that occur with the release of C=2. Main C=2 lines are designed to
withstand the same pressure as that of C=2 bottles, while distribution lines off the
main valve are designed for a lower pressure. Typically, the main line is pressure
tested to 200 bar, the design pressure being at least 160 bar.
 



 




There are two principal types of pipes that carry fuel and they are categorised by
the pressure the pipe is designed to withstand. Low-pressure pipes are used to
move fuel from a storage tank to a service tank to an injection pump; high-pressure
pipes are used to deliver fuel from an injection pump to an engine combustion
chamber. Shipsƞ fuel is usually stored in double-bottom tanks, deep tanks, side
bunker tanks, settling tanks or service tanks. Piping between a service tank and a
fuel transfer or booster pump is rated as low pressure. However, between each
pumping stage, pressure increases.
It is a mistake to assume that even if a pipeƞs pressure is relatively low, fuel will not
spray from a crack or small hole.
Pipes from fuel tanks can pass through ballast tanks and pipes serving ballast tanks
can pass through fuel tanks. jecause of pollution risks, classification societies have
stringent rules restricting the length of any oil pipe passing through a ballast tank
(and vice versa); it must be short, have increased wall thickness and stronger
flanges. S=LAS includes requirements for fire safety in engine rooms. In particular,
special double-skinned pipes must be used to deliver fuel to engine combustion
chambers. These are made of low carbon steel alloys and operate at high pressure,
between 600 and 900 bar. Oouble skins are necessary because pipe fracture will
cause fuel to spray in a fine aerosol. Fuel will ignite on contact with a hot surface,
such as a turbocharger casing or exhaust pipe. The second skin is to guard against
direct spraying. The pipe is designed so that fuel will be contained in the space
between the outer skin and the main pipe, and will drain into a collecting tank fitted
with a high-level alarm.
Low-pressure lubricating and fuel oil pipes passing close to a hot surface have to
be secured against the possibility of oil spraying from a flange. To prevent this, the
flange is usually taped. In addition, and whenever possible, the pipes are routed
clear of hot surfaces. Similarly, to prevent leaking oil falling onto a hot surface,
pipes should never be allowed to run above a hot surface.
Regular thermographic surveys of hot surfaces will identify those risk areas that are
sufficiently hot to ignite spraying or leaking fuel.
Preventive measures to be taken include additional lagging, spray or drip shields.
Fuel oil transfer pipes are usually mild steel and may corrode. The calculation for
minimum wall thickness includes a small allowance for corrosion. As a pipe ages
and corrodes, leakage can occur. Inspection programmes should concentrate on
identifying worn or corroded pipes.



÷ 
Water carried in pipes is used to cool machinery. The main engine is cooled by two
separate but linked systems: an open system (sea-to-sea) in which water is taken
from and returned to the sea (seawater cooling), and a closed system where
freshwater is circulated around an engine casing (freshwater cooling).
Freshwater is used to cool machinery directly, whereas seawater is used to cool
freshwater passing through a heat exchanger. The particular feature of an engine
cooling system is continuous fluid flow. Fluid in motion causes abrasive corrosion
and erosion. To reduce the effects of turbulent flows, seawater systems incorporate
large diameter mild steel pipes, the ends of which open to the sea through sea
chests where gate valves are fitted.
If a seawater cooling pipe bursts, both suction and discharge valves will have to be
closed to prevent engine room flooding. In order to make sure the valves operate
correctly when you need them to, open and close them at regular, say monthly,
intervals. Seawater pipes are usually mild steel, but galvanised steel, copper or
copper alloy are also used. Freshwater cooling pipes are generally made of mild
steel.





 
Air pipes allow an enclosed space to Ɲbreatheƞ. They prevent over-or under-pressure
by letting air in or out of the space when liquid is pumped in or out, or when
temperature changes cause air or fluids to expand or contract. Cargo holds are
ventilated by air pipes passing through the weather deck and these are fitted with
self-closing watertight covers (headers). This is a Load Line requirement.
Sounding pipes are small-bore mild steel pipes used to measure the quantity of fluid
in a tank or a hold bilge. The pipe allows a tape or sounding rod to pass through to
the bottom of a tank or hold. Oeck sounding pipes pass through the weather deck
and are fitted with screw-down caps. Sounding pipes for engine room double-
bottom tanks are fitted with self-closing cocks. It is imperative that sounding pipe
caps or cocks be kept shut. Sounding pipes are a potentially dangerous source of
progressive flooding. An engine room can be flooded through an open sounding
pipe if a shipƞs bottom is holed. A cargo hold can be flooded through an open deck
sounding pipe when water is washed on deck in heavy weather. Holes in weather
deck air pipes also cause hold flooding during heavy weather.
Air and sounding pipes are normally constructed of mild steel. Most of the time,
these pipes do not come into contact with liquid, either inside or outside. The size of
an air pipe serving a tank is determined by comparison of the pipeƞs cross-section
area with that of the pipe that will fill or empty the tank. This determination, by the
designer, is to avoid the risk of over- or under-pressure. Air and sounding pipes that
pass through other compartments are a potential source of progressive flooding. It is
difficult to inspect air and sounding pipes located inside cargo spaces or ballast
tanks. However, the integrity of air pipes for ballast tanks can be checked by
overfilling the tanks. Pipes passing through a dry cargo space must be inspected for
damage caused by contact with grabs, bulldozers, etc. It is advisable to open and to
inspect air pipe headers on the exposed weather deck once every five years
following the first special survey. This is necessary because corrosion on the inside
of an air pipe header will not be noticeable externally. Screw-down caps are fitted on
the top of sounding pipes. These caps should never be mislaid or replaced with
wooden plugs. To extend the life of air pipe headers, they should be galvanised. The
self-closing cocks on engine room sounding pipes should never be tied open.
 


÷ 
Hydraulic pipes are high-pressure pipes. Hydraulics are used for:
Manoeuvring the steering gear
Actuating controllable pitch propellers and thrusters
Control of watertight doors and valves
Lifting appliances and deck equipment
=pening stern, bow or side doors
Moving mobile ramps for hatch covers
Oriving cargo and ballast pumps and for many other minor shipboard utilities.
It is a requirement that hydraulic systems for steering, pitch control and watertight
doors have dedicated piping and pumps. Some hydraulic fluids are highly
flammable. As a result, hydraulic equipment and pipework must be kept clear of hot
surfaces. Alternatively, hot surfaces must be protected by spray shields. It is
important to prevent the external corrosion of hydraulic piping located on deck.
Hydraulic pipes operate at very high pressure and corrosion-induced weakness
frequently causes hydraulic pipes to burst. A high standard of cleanliness is
necessary when working with, or replacing, hydraulic piping. Check the systems
regularly for leaks, corrosion or mechanical damage.
se only good-quality and clean hydraulic fluid.
 
)
Classification societies publish rules for design and fabrication of shipsƞ piping. The
rules consider how the pipe will be used, the fluid conveyed, materials for
construction, and welding and test procedures. Shipsƞ piping is grouped into three
categories, each of which has different technical requirements.
Class I pipes have to comply with the most stringent rules. They include fuel oil pipes operating
above 16 bar pressure or above 150ºC, and steam pipes where the temperature exceeds 300ºC.
Class II pipes fall between the two rule requirements.
Class III pipes have the lowest requirements. They include fuel pipes that operate at or below 7
bar pressure and 60ºC.
Ouring design of piping systems, fluid temperature, pressure and the type of fluid conveyed
have to be considered.

 
A pipe is sized by its internal diameter. The required diameter of a pipe depends on
the minimum cross-section area necessary to permit passage of a fluid of given
viscosity at a given velocity. A pipeƞs wall thickness depends on the pressure, the
temperature of the fluid conveyed and construction materials. Pipes operating at high
pressure, such as hydraulic pipes, have thick walls, while pipes that operate at low
pressure, such as ballast water pipes, can be designed to classification society rule
Ɲminimum thicknessƞ. Pipes that connect direct to the shipƞs shell have thicker walls.
Ouring design calculations, an allowance for corrosion is factored into the wall
thickness. However, the calculated wall thickness can never be less than rule
minimum thickness. It is a mistake to believe that the corrosion allowance is enough
to prevent failure from uniform corrosion before the pipe is Ɲdesign life-expiredƞ.
 

÷ 


÷ 
 
The graph shows the classification society required minimum wall thickness for low-pressure steel pipes.
 „ ÷
÷

Pipes are connected to pumps by flanges. Flanges are a potential weak point in a piping
system. =ccasionally, and to provide the correct pressure from a pump, a calibration
orifice is fitted in the delivery piping. This can result in turbulent fluid flow and cause
abrasive corrosion or erosion. Welded flanges are prone to accelerated corrosion in the
weld metal or in the heat-affected zone. Pipes in wet areas where corrosion is likely
need to be examined at regular intervals (six-monthly).


4÷
The preferred method for connecting two lengths of steel pipe, whether a straight,
elbow or tee joint, is with a flange. With the possible exception of small-bore pipes in
low-pressure systems, pipes are not normally connected by threaded joints. Mechanical,
expansion or sliding joints are fitted in longitudinal pipes to allow the pipe to move
when a ship bends and flexes, or to cater for thermal expansion.
xpansion joints are
not fitted where there is regularly high stress, nor are they used inside cargo holds or
tanks.
xpansion joints should never be used as a permanent connection for corroded
pipes after a temporary repair. Classification society rules define which piping systems
to use and the positions where expansion joints can be fitted. =nly approved expansion
joints are allowed.
 „


÷
Clips and supports are used to hold pipes in position and to prevent movement or
vibration. A vibrating pipe can Ɲwork hardenƞ and fail. Pipes can fracture when there is
insufficient support. There are no hard and fast rules about the number of clips
required in a length of pipe as this will depend on the pipeƞs diameter, length, its
position and the density of fluid conveyed. The contact area at the surface of the pipe
requires protection. Failures often occur as a result of mechanical wear when the clip
loosens, allowing the pipe to move. Inspection procedures must be designed to
ensure that all clips are checked regularly, including those hidden from sight behind
insulation or under engine room floor plates. Special attention should be paid to clips
in concealed places.

 
Valves are fitted to isolate sections of pipe and will typically be found at suction
points, crossovers, feed lines, delivery lines and where pipes need to be removed.
Valves connected to the shell are flanged and made of steel or other ductile material.
?rey or nodular cast iron cannot be used for boiler blow-down valves, for valves
fitted to fuel oil or lubricating oil tanks, or for shell valves. Shell valves should be
tested regularly, on a monthly basis, by opening them. Marking valve handles with
high-visibility paint will help with identification during an emergency. Cast iron valves
have a service life shorter than those made from cast steel. Consequently, they need
careful examination during a special survey.
 „

!

!
 *
Pipes have a hard life: they carry abrasive and corrosive fluids; they are exposed to
atmospheric corrosion and to general wear and tear; they sometimes operate at
extremely high temperatures. The most common cause of pipe failure is corrosion-
induced weakness. Pipes corrode internally and externally. Internally, they may be
affected by erosion, uniform and abrasive corrosion, fatigue and galvanic action.

xternally, corrosion is caused mainly by atmospheric conditions, but pipes can

corrode locally where liquids drip onto them.

 




niform corrosion is the most common form of attack on metal. Its aggressiveness
depends on relative humidity, temperature, oxygen content and salt content. It is
widespread in pipes carrying saltwater. Pipes on deck, in locations prone to wetting,
in bilges and in ballast tanks, as well as pipe supports are at risk of uniform
corrosion. It is a good policy to replace a pipe when the corrosion measured
is equal to or greater than the design allowance.
 ÷÷



Pitting corrosion is defined as the localised breakdown of the inert surface layer that
protects metal against the formation of cavities or small diameter holes in the material.
Such corrosion can occur in mild steel and stainless steel. It has a random pattern, as
the formation of a pit is dependent on the breakdown of a pipeƞs protective film. Pitting
happens more readily in a stagnant environment.
As a general rule, any badly pitted pipe needs replacing.






Abrasion and erosion are the wearing away of material by a fluid flow. Material that has
been abrasively corroded or eroded looks pitted. To determine whether material has
been lost by either abrasion or erosion, it is necessary to examine the processes
involved in both. Abrasion happens when solid particles, such as sand, suspended
in a fluid flow scour a pipe. It is therefore a mechanical process. If the oxidised surface
protecting a pipeƞs base metal is abraded by such flows, uniform corrosion or pitting can
result. The main characteristic of abrasion is the appearance of cracking in the
direction of flow. Filters are fitted in ballast and bilge lines to prevent debris from being
sucked into a pipe. A slower than expected pumping rate may indicate that filters are
clogged and that they need cleaning. Worn or damaged filters must be replaced.

rosion is caused when turbulent fluid flows hit a pipeƞs inner surface; it is most
common at points where a pipe bends and at elbows where fluid flow changes direction,
or where an orifice, valve, welded joint or any other blockage impinges on fluid flow to
cause turbulence. Prevention of turbulence is the key to prevention of erosion. The use
of larger diameter pipes, together with a reduced pumping rate, can eliminate flow
turbulence and erosion.
 !÷

Fatigue damage is the rapid deterioration of metal, the results of which are cracking
and collapse. It is caused by cyclical mechanical stress, or when pipes are
connected to machinery or other pipes that vibrate.
)



?alvanic corrosion is the electro-chemical process between different metals. It is
most common where pipes connect to equipment made from a different metal and
where there is an electrically conductive path between the metals through an
electrolyte.
)
÷



Cast iron pipes and fittings are affected by graphitic corrosion that is most
commonly found at bends and elbows, locations where boundary layers cause
water to flow at different velocities, or where water accumulates. ?raphitic
corrosion attacks the inside of a pipe by oxidation and leaching of iron. It results in
the formation of rust supported by graphitic flakes. The process occurs over a
period of time and, if the pipe is not replaced, will continue until the pipe weakens
and eventually fails, usually catastrophically. The risk of failure through graphitic
corrosion can be reduced by:
Identifying every cast iron pipe or fitting that has a connection to the sea.
sing ultrasonic equipment to measure the wall thickness of pipes over ten years old; this
should be done annually.
Ouring a docking survey, removing for internal examination all iron pipes over ten years old
that are located in high-risk areas likely to be affected by graphitic corrosion, such as elbows,
where flow velocity changes or where water can
accumulate.
 ÷



Water hammer can affect any pipe but is most common in steam pipes. It is a problem
in pipes where internal condensation occurs.
Water hammers are impulse pressures that happen when steam enters a cold pipe
containing a small amount of water. The resulting stresses, along with possible rapid
expansion, can cause pipe joints to fail. Prevent water hammers by draining fluid from
pipes before injecting steam gradually. Steam systems are most prone to damage by
water hammer because they operate at high temperature and pressure, and because
condensed steam will remain in them, unless regularly drained.
Steam heating coils on tankers are particularly susceptible to damage by a water
hammer.

 ÷
Irregular stress affects pipes that are forced into alignment. If they have been
weakened by corrosion, stresses caused by thermal expansion or impulse loading, the
pipes will fail. Forcing pipes into alignment is bad engineering practice. Failures are
most likely at flange connections or valves.


÷ 
÷

Very low temperatures cause water to freeze and to expand in uninsulated pipes. In
cold conditions, high-viscosity or solidifying substances will become difficult to pump
because of their tendency to constrict the flow in pipes. Care must be taken to
avoid over-pressurising the pipe in an attempt to increase flow. It may be necessary to
add anti-freeze to a pipe system, or to arrange external heating, if conditions get
really cold.
 -
Metallic pipes expand and contract as the temperature changes. A shipƞs movement
will cause them to stretch and bend, and unless these stresses are absorbed by an
expansion joint, pipes can fail. julkheads pierced by pipes present special problems.
The bulkheadƞs strength has to be maintained and the stresses resulting from a
pipeƞs movement have to be absorbed. If the bulkhead forms part of a fire zone,
insulation has to be repaired or replaced to ensure that fire integrity is not
compromised.



„
3 3
IM= defines risk as:
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A hazard is a substance, situation or practice that has the potential to cause harm.
jriefly, what we are concerned with, therefore, is:
the identification of hazards
the assessment of the risks associated with those hazards
the application of controls to reduce the risks that are deemed intolerable
the monitoring of the effectiveness of the controls
 Terminology
 ÷
An unplanned sequence of events and/or conditions that results in, or
could have reasonably resulted in, a loss event.
Incidents are a series of events or conditions that contain a number of structural / machinery
/ equipment / outfitting problems, human errors, external factors as well as positive actions
and conditions.

 ÷
An incident with unexpected or undesirable consequences. The consequences may be
related to personnel injury or fatality, property loss, environmental impact, business
loss, etc. or a combination of these.

 


An incident with no consequences, but that could have reasonably
resulted in consequences under different conditions.

„    ndesirable or unexpected outcomes may result in negative

effects for an organization. These consequences can range from minor injuries to
major events involving loss of life, extensive property loss, environmental damage,
and breaches related to security.
All too often, companies carry out risk assessment exercises as separate, isolated
activities. The process is regarded as complete once the forms are filled in and
filed away. jut if new or enhanced controls have been identified, they must be
implemented, usually by inclusion in the companyƞs documented procedures.

If it is to make a real, practical contribution to improving safety and preventing

pollution, the management of risks must be continual and flexible. A risk
assessment is nothing more than a [snapshotơ. The organization, the technology,
working practices, the regulatory environment and other factors are constantly
changing, and subsequently arising hazards will not be included.
Assessments must be reviewed regularly and in the light of experience; for
example, an increase in the number of accidents or hazardous occurrences may
indicate that previously implemented controls are no longer effective. Additional
risk assessments will be needed for infrequent activities or those being undertaken
for the first time.

The formal risk assessment exercise is only one of many contributions to risk
management. Much more important are flexibility and responsiveness to a dynamic
environment and its dangers.
The organization (Company) must ensure that it is sensitive to the signals provided
by internal audits, routine reporting, company and Mastersƞ reviews, accident
reports, etc., and that it responds promptly and effectively.



,

(SVA) is a systematic and step-by-step review of all elements
of risk carried out prior to a specific task or operatoin so that measures can be
taken to remove or control any elements of risk identified during the preparation for
or performance of the said task or operation.

It is important to remember the subjective nature of risk perception; for example, one
person swinging 30m above the deck in a bosunƞs chair may have a very different view
of the risks involved from that of another person in the same situation. This divergence
in responses to risk arises from differences in experience, training and temperament,
and it can be considerable. Who decides what is tolerable and what is acceptable?
Because the judgements of the people engaged in an activity may not coincide with
those of the assessors, it is essential that operational staff be involved in the
assessment process.
They have knowledge of the activities and experience in their conduct, and they have to
live with the consequences of the decisions that are taken.
Furthermore, different levels of experience and training mean that the hazards and risks
associated with an activity can vary greatly with the people who carry it out, and
conditions may be very different from those prevailing at the time of the assessment.
exercise, H=W T= PLAN ANY V=j?
 ÷÷

-
 
Is this a familiar work operation for the crew?
Is there an adequate procedure/instruction/work permits?
Is the group aware of experiences/incidents from similar activities/SVA?

„ ÷ 
Oo we have the necessary personnel and skills for the job?

„÷


÷
Is this a job where several departments/crews must be coordinated?
Is good communications and suitable means of communication in place?
Are there potential conflicts with simultaneous activities (cargo/ballast/bunker)?
Has it been made clear who is incharge for the work?
Has sufficient time been allowed for the planning of the activities?
. 

 ÷
÷ 

Are barriers,to reduce the likelihood of unwanted incidents maintained intact

(safety elements of any kind)?

 ÷

 
1 

÷
4
Is the necessary isolation from energy provided
(rotation,pressure,electrical voltage etc.)?

May high temperature represent a danger?

 ÷


÷
- ÷

÷
4
Is lifting equipment,special tools,equipment/material for the job available,familiar
to the users,checked and found in order?
Oo the involved personnel have proper and adequate protective equipment?
Is there danger of uncontrolled movement/rotation of equipment/tools?



Is it necessary to make a worksite inspection to verify access, knowledge about the
working area working conditions etc.?
Has work at heights/at several levels above eachother/falling objects been considered?
Has flammable gas/liquid/material in the area been considered?




Is the workplace clean and tidy?
Has the need for tags/signs/barriers been considered?
Has the need for additional guards/watches been considered?
Has weather,wind,waves,visibility and light been considered?
Has access/escape been considered?
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If any of the above factors are answered with — , a


   should be done in accordance with SMM 17.SEQ06

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If any of the above factors are answered with ·
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Maintenance and inspection procedures are largely dependant on humans and
although no one intends for errors to happen, experience informs us that by our
nature humans are prone to error and it is inevitable that mistakes will be made from
time to time.
Maintenance and inspection work is particularly vulnerable to error because the work
is often complex involving the frequent removal and replacement of a variety of
components. Certain tasks also require high levels of vigilance and skill to detect faults
that can be infrequent and difficult to spot. Maintenance and inspection work is also
commonly performed in difficult working conditions, and often under time pressure.

Most people would agree that human beings are frequent violators of the Ɲrulesƞ whatever
they might be. jut violations are not all that bad ƛ through constant pushing at accepted
boundaries they got us out of the caves!

It is no surprise that most small claims are caused by small human errors. You might
expect, therefore, that most really large claims would result from major human errors.
They do not! They, too, are caused by minor errors.
We must prevent the next incident occurring, not the last one. Latent failures are a
greater threat as they create conditions in which accidents are more likely and more
serious
  ÷











Performance of humans that deviates from the desired performance.

Notes:
This definition is not a failure to perform as directed, but failure to perform as desired.
An individual can follow the procedure precisely and still perform a human error,
because the individual does not perform as desired (i.e., there is a gap between actual
and desired performance). In this situation, the procedure specifies the incorrect
method for performing the task.



 

jasically they are procedures written to shape peopleƞs behaviour so as to minimise

accidents. They are, if you like, standards designed to form part of the system defences
against accidents. Oefences are installed to protect the individual, the asset or the
natural environment (all Ɲobjects of harmƞ) against uncontrolled hazards
Assuming that the rules, meaning safe operating procedures, are wellfounded, any
deviation will bring the violator into an area of increased risk and danger. The violation
itself may not be damaging but the act of violating takes the violator into regions in
which subsequent errors are much more likely to have bad outcomes. This relationship
can be summarised quite simply by the equation:

Violations + errors = injury, death and damage

Factors leading to deliberate non-compliance extend well beyond the psychology of the
individual in direct contact with working hazards and include such organisational issues as:

The nature of the workplace

The quality of tools and equipment
Whether or not supervisors or managers turn a Ɲblind eyeƞ in order to get the job done
The quality of the rules, regulations and procedures
The organisationƞs overall safety culture, or indeed its absence
÷


 





Can we see any reasons here?
 „ 
÷

*÷
÷ ƛ almost invisible until there is an accident (or sometimes as the
result of an audit), routine violations are promoted by a relatively indifferent
environment; i.e. one that rarely punishes violations or rewards compliance ƛ
[we do it like this all the time and nobody even noticesơ.

AMPL
?

÷
÷ ƛ corner-cutting; i.e. following the path of least resistance,
sometimes also thrill seeking ƛ [I know a better way of doing thisơ.

AMPL
?

÷÷
÷ ƛ standard problems that are not covered in the procedures
ƛ [we canƞt do this any other wayơ.

AMPL
?

- ÷
÷ ƛ unforeseen and undefined situations ƛ

AMPL
?.
  






*÷÷ ƛ the individual becomes so expert at exercising a particular skill,

that he no longer consciously thinks about it allowing the mind to wander and the
unexpected to happen ƛ drivers who regularly travel the same route to the station each
day suffer from this ƛ Ɲam I here already?ƞ

÷ ƛ the process of forgetting to be afraid ƛ interestingly most accidents
on mountains happen on the way down from the summit ƛ only a relatively small
number happen on the way up.
÷

6
 ƛ no matter how well you defend yourself the dangers Ɲout thereƞ
never go away ƛ move outside your protective Ɲbubbleƞ and something or someone
will get you!
„

÷
 ƛ systems, policies and procedures grow old or fail to adjust to
changing external factors thus increasing the propensity for accidents to happen.


3
 ƛ if it can happen it will happen, but there is also Schultzƞ Law.
Mr Schultz merely said that Murphy was an optimist!
 !




 

jased on past experience it is known that the combination of combustible materials and
sources of ignition are the main cause of machinery space fires. The combustible
material involved is in the majority of cases oil, i.e. fuel oil, lubricating oil, thermal oil or
hydraulic oil. However, plastic materials in electrical installations may also be
combustible material causing outbreak of fires.

There is a large variety of potential ignition sources and the most common are hot
surfaces, e.g. exhaust pipes and steam pipes, over-heating of machinery or ignition
from electrical installations due to short circuiting or sparks caused by operation of
switchgear. =ther frequent ignition sources are those associated with human activities,
e.g. smoking, welding and grinding.
 „÷
÷
!÷

÷



!


1. Failures resulting from the daily use of machinery space installations, such as e.g. oil
leakages, breakage of flexible pipes.

2. Lack of adequate cleanliness adds to the fire hazard in two ways.

a) In the first place the probability of occurrence of fire, in particular due to ignition
caused by human activities is increased because of the widespread presence of the
combustible material in the form of oil spill/oily deposits.
b) Secondly, an unclean machinery space may cause a small fire to spread, e.g. a fire in
an electrical switchboard or panel may develop into a full machinery space fire due
to the presence of oil spills/oily deposits.
  

÷
* 
÷
!

*
Shielding of high pressure fuel oil pipes
Typical defects found may be of the following nature:
ƛ Partially lacking or damaged shielding.
ƛ Loose or defective end attachments of shielding.
ƛ Flexible pipes used for shielding fitted in such a way that contact between high
pressure fuel pipe and flexible pipe causes wear damage.
ƛ Oefective drainage arrangements.
ƛ Partially lacking insulation, typically in way of flanges or at locations where removal of
insulation is necessary for maintenance.
ƛ =il soaked insulation due to damage or the lack of steel sheeting.

=il leakages into electrical equipment may be ignited due to sparks normally generated
by operation of switchgear (fine oil spray is probably most susceptible to ignition).
Water leakages may cause short circuiting and ignition of insulation or other material of
plastic type. The owner and operating personnel should in particular look for signs of
leaking flanges, deterioration of pipes and leakages from other machinery which may
come into contact with subject electrical equipment.
Attention at the condition of flexible pipes used in oil systems, e.g. in connection
with hydraulic power arrangements, flexible pipes are used to prevent harmful
vibrations and noise. High pressures in combination with pulsations may cause
breakage of the flexible pipes, particularly in way of end attachments.

Also, flexible pipes for connecting fuel oil supply to oil burners are extensively used.
Any signs of deteriorating conditions being revealed, should be replaced or at least
temporarily repaired.

jroken or loose fastenings of oil pipes should be repaired immediately because they
may result in future damage and possible fire.

It is your responsibility to ensure that the machinery space is maintained in a clean

condition.

A cleanliness level is not acceptable in cases where floor plates are slippery from
extensive oil spills, or oil is seeping from machinery, or if painted surfaces have an
oil layer, or when a fire hazard exists due, for instance, to accumulation of rags or
other similar materials or presence of oil on bilge water surface
ü








 
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