F211

Exchange and Transport

Heart and Circulation
 LO: explain the need for transport systems in multicellular
animals in terms of size, activity and surface area to volume ratio

• All cells need energy, where do they get it from?

• How is the energy released?
• How do the food molecules and oxygen get to the cells in
simple organisms and complex organisms?
• How does the organism’s activity level influence how fast the
food molecules and oxygen have to get to the cells?
• Does the fact that some organisms are ectothermic (cold
blooded) and some are endo thermic (warm blooded) affect
how fast these molecules need to be supplied to cells?
What are the features of an efficient oxygen and
nutrient molecule transport system?
• A fluid medium to carry molecules
• A pump to push the fluid round
• Exchange surfaces for oxygen and nutrients to
enter and leave the blood
• Vessels to carry the fluid medium round the
organism
• Separate circuits to pick up oxygen from the
environment and deliver it to the cells.
 Explain the meaning of the terms single and double circulation with reference to the systems of fish and mammals
Fish have a single circulation
system. Blood flows from the heart
to the gills and then on to the body
before returning to the heart
• What are the disadvantages of
this system?
• Heart cannot pump at high
pressure
• Reduced blood pressure in
capillaries of gills to reduce
chance of damage
• Slow rate of flow in rest of body
• Limited rate of delivery of oxygen
and glucose to tissues
 Explain the meaning of the terms single and double circulation with reference to the systems of fish and mammals
Mammals have double
circulatory systems. One circuit
(pulmonary) takes blood from the
heart to the lungs and back, the
other(systemic) takes blood from
heart to body tissues and back.
• What are the advantages of the
mammalian system?
• Heart can increase blood pressure
after blood passes through lungs
• Increased speed of delivery
• Increased blood pressure in systemic
system, oxygen and glucose get to
tissues quickly
• Lower blood pressure in pulmonary
system decreases the chance of
damaging capillaries in the lungs
Explain the meaning of the terms single and double circulation with reference to the systems of fish and mammals

• To see how the heart and

circulatory systems have
evolved go to:

• http://mhhe.com/biosci/ge
nbio/biolink/j_explorations
/jhbch05.htm
 Learning outcomes
• Describe the external and internal structure of
the mammalian heart.

• Explain the differences in thickness of the

walls of the different chambers of the heart in
terms of their functions.
 Heart diagrams
• Label as much as you can on the diagram
using the labels on the sheet supplied.
External view of Heart
Describe the cardiac cycle with reference to the action of the valves
in the heart.
 For animation of the cardiac cycle and explanation of
the changes in pressure that take place

• http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/pharm/hyper
_heart1.html
Be able to link
changes in pressure
and volume shown on
the graph with the
stages of the cardiac
cycle.
 Control of the Cardiac cycle
Read text book pages 58-59
Make notes on the meaning of:
Myogenic
Sinoatrial node
Atrioventricular node
Purkyne (Purkinje) tissue
Control of the cardiac cycle

Non –conducting
tissue
Interpret and explain electrocardiogram (ECG) traces
with reference to normal and abnormal heart activity.
 ECG interpretation
• P-R interval (usually 0.12 to 0.2 secs) greater than 0.2 secs means a delay
in the transmission of the excitation wave to the ventricles due to damage
to the AV node or Purkine tissue
• QRS complex is usually 0.06 to 0.1 sec in duration, if longer it indicates
problems with the conduction of the excitation wave across the ventricles.
• Small unclear P waves indicate atrial fibrillation due to damage to the SAN,
this means that the ventricles are not filled during atrial systole, so
ventricle contraction doesn’t expel the normal amount of blood.
• No regular PQRS pattern discernible indicates fibrillation of the atria and
ventricles, uncoordinated weak contractions of the chambers so that
blood is not pumped out of the heart effectively.
• Deep S waves indicate an increase in ventricle thickness due to increase in
blood pressure.
Interpret and explain electrocardiogram (ECG) traces with reference to normal and
abnormal heart activity.
• P shows atrial excitation just prior to atrial
systole
• QRS shows ventricle excitation that causes
ventricular systole
• T shows repolarisation of the heart muscle
during diastole
• Top ECG normal
• Any changes to the shape and length of each
section of the trace can indicate heart
abnormalities
• Raised ST section indicates heart attack, no
ion pumps workinging to repolarise cells
• Fibrillation is unco-ordinated contraction of
either / or / both atria and ventricles
• Hypertrophy: extra muscle growth to
overcome increased blood pressure due to
blockages in blood vessels
Complete the question on ECG traces
 Explain the meaning of the terms “open” and “closed”
circulatory systems with reference to insects and fish
• Closed circulatory system •Open circulatory system
Vertebrates, and a few invertebrates, have a The open circulatory system is common to
closed circulatory system. Closed molluscs and arthropods. Open circulatory
circulatory systems have the blood closed at systems (evolved in crustaceans, insects,
all times within vessels of different size and mollusks and other invertebrates) pump blood
wall thickness. In this type of system, blood into a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to
is pumped by a heart through vessels, and the circulatory system between cells. Blood is
does not normally fill body cavities. pumped by a heart into the body cavities, where
tissues are surrounded by the blood.
Describe the structure of arteries, veins and
capillaries
 Describe the structures and functions of
arteries, veins and capillaries
• Cut up the table that you • Make notes on the
have been given and sort it functions of:
out! endothelium, elastic
• When completed collect a fibres, smooth muscle
correct version and collagen fibres
• Learn the sequence of
• How does skeletal
tissues that make up the
muscle help blood flow
walls of arteries and veins.
ie: endothelium, elastic back to the heart?
fibres, smooth muscle, • What are valves for in
collagen fibres veins?
 Features of arteries, veins and capillaries
Feature Arteries Capillaries veins
Wall thickness Thicker than veins Very thin, walls only Thinner than arteries
one cell thick
Muscle in wall Thick muscle layer NO muscle layer Thin muscle layer
Elasticity of wall Thick layer of elastic NO elastic tissue Little elastic tissue
tissue
Inner surface Smooth endothelium, Only one layer of cells Smooth endothelium,
often folded, can made of endothelium not folded
unfold when stretched
Shape of cross section Round round Irregular or flattened
Size of lumen small Tiny (only 7 µm across) Larger than artery
Direction of blood flow From heart towards From arterioles to From organs back to
organs venules heart
Pressure of blood high low low
valves No valves apart from No valves Pocket valves all along
at exit of ventricles length
(semi-lunar valves)
Sequence of tissues in arteries, veins
and capillaries
 Functions of tissues
• Endothelium –
• provides a smooth lining that offers little friction to slow down the
passage of blood. It may be folded lining arteries to allow it to expand
when blood surges though and the artery stretches
• Elastic fibres-
• allow vessels to stretch as high pressure blood flows through; and
recoil to maintain pressure in arteries when heart is in diastole.
• Smooth muscle –
• in arteries and arterioles can be contracted to constrict the vessel
and decrease the volume of blood flowing through
• Collagen-
• forms a strong external layer to withstand high pressure generated by
ventricular systole
Importance of pocket valves in veins
• Because blood pressure is
low in veins there is a
tendency for blood to “pool”
due to the effects of gravity.
• Valves prevent blood
flowing backwards
• Veins are situated between
skeletal muscle, when this
contracts it squeezes blood
up the veins and assists in its
return to the heart
 Explain the differences between blood, tissue fluid and lymph.
Feature Blood Tissue fluid Lymph

Cells Erythrocytes(red) Leucocytes phagocytes lymphocytes

(white) and platelets

Proteins Hormones and plasma Hormones and protein Few proteins

proteins secreted by body cells

Fats Some transported as NONE More than in blood (absorbed

lipoproteins (HDL, LDL) from lacteals in small intestine)

Glucose 80-120mg per 100cm3 Less than in blood Gets Less than in blood and tissue
absorbed by cells fluid

Amino acids More than in other fluids Less than in blood Gets Less than in blood and tissue
absorbed by cells fluid

Oxygen More than in other fluids Less than in blood Gets Less than in blood and tissue
absorbed by cells fluid

Carbon dioxide Little More than in blood.Gets More

absorbed by cells
Describe how tissue fluid is formed from plasma.

• Arteries branch into arterioles and

then into capillaries around the
tissues of organs
• The contractions of the heart
maintain some pressure in the
capillaries (hydrostatic pressure)
• This squeezes fluid out between
the endothelial cells of the
capillaries
• The fluid contains oxygen, amino
acids and glucose; but no cells
apart from a few phagocytes and
no plasma proteins which are too
large to go through the pores
Exchange in the capillary bed
• Tissue fluid bathes the cells
• Nutrients (glucose, mineral ions
and amino acids) and oxygen are
taken into cells by diffusion,
facilitated diffusion and active
transport
• Waste such as CO2 and urea are
removed from cells by similar
processes
• Tissue fluid must now return to
the circulatory system to maintain
blood volume
How does the fluid return to the blood?
• Plasma proteins which remain in the
blood give blood a lower water potential
than tissue fluid so water tends to flow
back into the capillaries down a water
potential gradient, solutes diffuse down
their concentration gradients.
• At the arteriole end of the capillary
hydrostatic pressure is greater than
osmotic pressure (solute potential) so
there is net outflow from the capillary
• At the venule end of the capillary the
hydrostatic pressure has dropped
considerably due to fluid leaving the
blood, it is now lower than the osmotic
pressure(solute potential);so there is net
inflow to the capillary
Importance of the lymphatic system

• Without the lymphatic system tissue fluid

could accumulate and cause oedema
• The lymph nodes contain large numbers
of phagocytic lymphocytes that engulf
and kill bacteria. They are part of the
immune system
Describe the role of haemoglobin in carrying
oxygen
• REMEMBER Haemoglobin becomes
oxygenated not oxidised
• It forms Oxyhaemoglobin
• Haemoglobin is an example of a
quaternary protein- it is made up of 4
polypeptide units each of which holds
an iron (Fe2+)containing “Haem” group
(NB: More on protein structures later
in the other part of your course)
• The Haem group has an affinity
(attraction) for oxygen
• Each haem group can hold one
molecule of oxygen, so the
haemoglobin molecule carries 4
molecules of oxygen
Taking up and releasing oxygen

• Oxygen is absorbed in the

alveoli of the lungs
• Oxygen diffuses into blood
plasma and from there into
red blood cells
• The oxygen is taken up by
Haemoglobin and is removed
from solution
• This maintains the diffusion
gradient so more oxygen
diffuses into the plasma and
red blood cells
Uptake of oxygen by haemoglobin
• Rate of uptake of oxygen depends on the
partial pressure of oxygen
• Partial pressure can be thought of as the
amount of a particular gas in a mixture of
gases measured in kPa
• At low partial pressures it is difficult for oxygen
molecules to associate with haemoglobin; it is
hard for the first oxygen molecule to get in to
the complex and reach the haem group.
• Once one oxygen molecule is in, the Hb
molecule changes shape and this makes it
easier for more oxygen to get in.
• Second and third O2 molecules associate quite
easily
• To get the fourth one in and get almost 100%
saturation the partial pressure needs to be
very high
Uptake of oxygen by haemoglobin
• This means that in areas where
the partial pressure of oxygen is
high,such as the lungs,
haemoglobin is almost
saturated.
• In areas where the partial
pressure of oxygen is low, such
as respiring tissues, the oxygen
dissociates from the
haemoglobin easily and then
diffuses out of the blood
plasma to the cells that need it.
 Uptake and release of oxygen by
haemoglobin
• Foetal haemoglobin has a
higher affinity for oxygen
than adult haemoglobin
• As the mothers blood flows
through the placental
tissue the PO
faet2 is low so the
oxygen dissociates from
the haemoglobin
• The foetal haemoglobin
picks up the released
oxygen.
 Oxygen availability at altitude
• The % of oxygen in the air is the same as at sea level but the
atmospheric pressure is much lower
• This means that fewer molecules of oxygen are inhaled per
breath, so % saturation of haemoglobin in the lungs is greatly
reduced
• Lack of oxygen at altitude results in heavy breathing, and
increased heart rate as the body tries to maintain normal
levels of oxygen supplied to tissues.
• Dizziness, headaches, nausea, increasing confusion, inability
to walk straight may follow
• In extreme cases this can turn into HACE (high altitude
cerebral edema) or HAPE (high altitude pulmonary edema)
which are potentially life threatening conditions unless the
person descends to an area where oxygen availabilty is higher