The Plant Kingdom

The study of plants is called Botany or Phytology

(phyte- means plant in Latin)
Characteristics of plants include:
1. Majority are multicellular…there are a few unicellular
types
2. Cell walls of cellulose aka fiber in our diet
3. Cells are eukaryotic : contain membrane bound
organelles e.g. nucleus, ER, mitochondria etc.
4. Contain chloroplasts which contain a green
pigment chlorophyll used for photosynthesis (P/S)
5. Autotrophic – produce food (glucose) using light, carbon
dioxide and water by P/S
 vacuole

chloroplast
Chloroplasts
 The chemical formulas for P/S is:
6CO2 + 6 H20 + light  C6H12O6 + 6 O2
glucose
6. Importance:
Take up carbon dioxide produced by aerobic
organisms
Produce oxygen required by aerobic organisms
Bottom of the food chain, they are called
“producers” as they make carbohydrates by P/S. All
heterotrophic organisms get their energy (food)
directly or indirectly from plants.
Form environments in which organisms live
Without plants most life would cease to exist!
 Classification of Plants
A. Algae or Seaweeds:
Seaweeds 3 groups based on colour, all
are aquatic.
 1. Rhodophyta or Red Algae
 2. Chlorophyta or Green Algae
 3. Phaeophyta or Brown Algae

B. Non-vascular Terrestrial (Land) Plants

 1. Bryophytes e.g. Mosses and Liverworts
 Moss

Bryophytes
Liverworts
C. Tracheophytes: The Vascular Plants
 True roots, stems and leaves
 Have vascular tissue called xylem and phloem
 Xylem brings water and minerals up the plant
from the roots to stems to leaves
 Phloem carries products of P/S from leaves to
stems to roots
 Groups include:
1. Pteropsida - Ferns
2. Gymnosperms - includes conifers or cone
bearing plants which are aka evergreens
e.g. firs, pines, hemlock, redwood trees
3. Angiosperms – includes plants which
produce flowers
Types of Ferns
Types of Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
 Plant Reproduction

(In higher plants)

See p 246
Alternation of Generations
(See page 246)
DIPLOID

HAPLOID
 Classification of Algae
Algae or Seaweeds:
Seaweeds 3 groups based on colour,
all are aquatic.
 1. Rhodophyta or Red Algae
 2. Chlorophyta or Green Algae
 3. Phaeophyta or Brown Algae
 Plant Kingdom: Algae
Refer to green handout
 Multicellular algae

 Classified based on their photosynthetic pigments.

 “Grasses” of the sea: many sea animals feed on these.

 Produce large amount of Oxygen for the Earth

 Medicinal properties for treating: high blood pressure, ulcers, arthritis

 Food products: ice cream, sushi wraps, pudding, egg nog

 Plastics, waxes, and paints are made from some types.

 Phylum Rhodophyta
• I. Red Algae
* pigments called Phycobilins: reddish colour, but not all
are red
* Some live and photosynthesize at extreme depths (up
to120 metres!) due to these red pigments which
absorb blue light
* some involved in forming coral reefs
* produce carageenan and agar
Red Algae
Some types of red algae aid in the formation of coral reefs
Such as this “coralline” algae.

                                                                                     

      
 Red Algae is a source of
Carrageenan and Agar

An Overview of Current Carrageenan Applications

. FOOD APPLICATIONs
Beer/Wine/ Vinegar -accelerates and improves clarity. Chocolate Milk
Drink -stabilizes and improves viscosity. Ice cream -prevents ice crystals
formation. -enhances excellent mouthfeel. Flans/Dessert Gel -enhances
flavor release and excellent mouthfeel Sauces and Dressings -thickens
and improves viscosity. PROCESSED MEAT Beef Patty -substitutes fat,
retains moisture and increase yield. Luncheon Meat -prevents fat
separation serves as a meat extender. Poultry and Ham -controls
dehydration of frozen poultry, enhances juiciness and increase yield.
NON-FOOD APPLICATION Petfood Canned meat and fish -gelling and
stabilizing agent. Moist, solid petfood -binder. Toothpaste -stabilizer. Air
freshener -gelling agent.
•The greatest use of agar is in association with food preparation and in
the pharmaceutical industry (as a laxative, or as an inert carrier for drug
products where slow release of the drug is required).

Agar is used in bacteriology and mycology as a stiffening agent in

growth media.

Agar is used as a stabilizer for emulsions, and as a constituent of

cosmetic skin preparations, ointments, and lotions. It is used in
photographic film, shoe polish, dental impression molds, shaving soaps,
hand lotions, and in the tanning industry.

In food, agar is used as a substitute for gelatin, as an antidrying agent in

breads and pastry, and also for gelling and thickening purposes. It is used
in the manufacture of processed cheese, mayonnaise, puddings, creams,
and jellies and in the manufacture of frozen dairy products.
 Phylum Chlorophyta
• II. Green Algae
* same pigments and cell wall composition as higher plants.
* Exist as single cells, colonies, large clusters

Reproduction: Alternation of Generations. Page 246 and 250: Ulva

Life cycle in which green algae shift back and forth between haploid and
diploid stages. Other organisms use this cycle too!
1. Gametophyte: result of Meiosis. Haploid. Male or Female
gametophytes.
2. Sporophyte: result of fertilization: fusing of gametes.
 Types of Green Algae

Ulva or Sea Lettuce

DIPLOID

HAPLOID
Life cycle of Ulva (see p 250)

Note: Alteration of generations!!!

More Green Algae

A seaweed called Yendo

A freshwater type
Dead Man’s Fingers
Volvox
A colonial type of
green algae it is This tropical green algae used in
made of many aquariums was accidentally released
individual cells. into the Mediterranean Sea where it
covered native plant species!!
 Spirogyra a.k.a. Pond Scum

In Spirogyra the chloroplast

runs through the cell like a
coiled spring or helix.
 Conjugation in Spirogyra (p 250)

A type of sexual reproduction which forms zygotes.

Conjugation in Spirogyra (p 250)

Spirogyra forms conjugation

tubes. The contents of one cell
passes through the tube and fuses
with a cell from the other
filament. See p 250 Fig 9.12

Fertilization occurs and a

zygote is formed. This develops
into a thick walled resistant
zygospore, similar to
breadmold! These zygospores
can withstand harsh conditions.
They can survive the cold
winter or when a pond dries up.
A colour enhanced
photomicrograph of
conjugation in Spirogyra. Note
how the contents of one cell
enter the other through a
conjugation tube.

It may take a long time

before new filaments start
to grow. Here the start of
the development into new
filaments is visible as the
spiral chloroplasts are
beginning to show.
When conditions are favourable zygospores grow into
pond scum once again!!

It is also the name of a

Jazz-Rock group !
Not all green algae are green!!!

Single cell green algae are found just about anywhere there is water. They coat
surfaces, form bubbly scums on ponds, and drift about in the sunny upper
water of lakes and oceans. They even live on snow banks–a condition called
‘watermelon snow’. In this case the green cells are protected from harmful
ultra violet radiation by a parasol of red pigment ! It tastes like watermelon
but if you eat this stuff it can cause diarrhea!!!
 Walking on pink snow often
results in red soles as the red
carotenoid algal pigment
rubs off on your shoes. Well-
worn shoes such as these are
not very safe for walking on
a steep snow bank.
During late spring and summer, alpine snowbanks are often colored
beautiful shades of red by a myriad of algal cells. The
concentrations or "blooms" may extend to a depth of 25
centimeters (10 inches). Each spherical cell is approximately 30
micrometers in diameter, about four times the diameter of a human
red blood cell. It has been estimated that one teaspoon of melted
snow may contain more than a million cells of snow algae.
Compacting the snow increases the density of the red cells and
heightens the color.
Unlike most
species of
fresh-water
algae, it is
cryophilic
(cold-loving)
and thrives
in freezing
water. Its
scientific
surname,
nivalis, is
from Latin
and refers to
snow.
Bonus!!
a) What group?
Or…
b) Why is it
unusual?
 Phylum Phaeophyta
• III. Brown algae
* “Dusky” plants: yellowish-brown color
* Color is due to pigment: Fucoxanthin
* Largest variety of algae: e.g. Giant Kelp or Bull
Kelp and Fucus (rock weed)
* Important structures: holdfast, stipe, bladder,
blades. Review these on page 251. These are
“plantlike” features!
•Brown algae: Phylum Phaeophyta
Fucus or Rock weed is found on the shores
around Victoria
 Phylum Phaeophyta: Brown Algae
99% of the brown algae species are found in the marine
environment. Characteristics exhibit a wide range of reproductive
strategies, from simple, asexual cell division to complex forms of
sexual reproduction known as "Alteration of generations.“
(See p 251)
The thallus (or body) of the brown kelp algae, is made of:

Holdfast - used to attach to rock or bottom to anchor the algae

Stipe - flexible and used for flotation – similar to the stem of a land
plant. It is hollow in the giant kelp or bull kelp.

Air bladder or pneumatocyst contains gases to help blades float at

surface

Blade - leaf like structure that floats on surface to collect sunlight for
photosynthesis.
The bladder contains a
mix of gases, up to 10% of
which can be carbon
monoxide.
Giant Kelp form forests in the sea!
Kelp is often seen on the beaches around
Victoria
……And on our rocky shores
Algin is found in the cell wall of kelp
along with cellulose. Kelp is harvested for
this substance which acts as an emulsifier
and thickening agent used in many products.
Emulsifiers allow for a stable and
homogenous mixture of two liquids, which
do not normally mix. .
•About half of the algin produced is used for
making ice cream and other dairy products.
The rest is used in other products, including
shaving cream, rubber, an paint.
•Algin is used as a stabiliser in ice-cream and
salad dressings. In fruit pie fillings, the algin
stops the fruit pulp leaking into the pastry.

• It is also used as a foam stabiliser in beer, as

well as in bakery products and pet food.
Kelp is harvested using “Kelp cutters”
…or by hand in some areas
 Agricultural and garden uses
For people who live near the coast, seaweed is an important
natural resource that is readily available and provides food
for humans, livestock and the land. It has an abundance of
trace elements, minerals and growth promoting agents and
decayed seaweed helps retain moisture, making seaweed
attractive for use on light or sandy soils.
There is a growing awareness of the
benefits associated with the use of
seaweed in soil conditioning, with golf
courses and sports grounds the major
uses in this sector. The algin present in
seaweed acts as a moisture retainer,
particularly in loose sandy soils. This
coupled with the slow release of trace
elements make seaweed an attractive
alternative to artificial fertilizers.
 Dentists use algin to make dental
impressions of teeth.

An alginate impression of An alginate impression of

the upper arch the lower arch
Another use of Algin and
Diatoms!
• A great peel off mask for tightening
skin and absorbing excess oil. Active
ingredients: seaweed, calcium salt,
diatomaceous earth. After activation
with water and application, the mask
simply peels off the skin.
 Some Medical uses of Algin
•Algin is used in dressings for the treatment
of exudative wounds. This dressing forms a
gel layer which protects the wound and
maintains an ideal moist environment for
healing. Sailors have been treating their
wounds with seaweed for hundreds of years.
• Sodium alginate, the sodium salt of algin, is present in
some antacid products and is effective for the treatment
of gastroesophageal reflux disease or GERD.
• Sodium alginate reacts with gastric acid to form a gel
called the alginate raft. The alginate raft floats on top of
the gastric (stomach) contents and acts as a barrier to
acid and food reflux preventing entrance back into the
esophagus.
• Sodium alginate binds tightly to radioactive such
substances as strontium, calcium, barium,
cadmium and radium.

• Cows have been fed sodium alginate, which binds

to radioactive strontium 90, causing it to pass out
of the body without any of it getting absorbed.
Animals can consume radioactive materials if they
have been dispersed into the environment.
This occurred when the
Cernobyl nuclear
reactor in Russia
released large amounts
of radiation into the
atmosphere in 1986.