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u There is no short answer to the question ³What is action research?´ (1) .

Nevertheless as the name suggests, action research is a methodology
which has the dual aims of action and research...
u action to bring about change in some community or organization or
program; and
u research to increase understanding on the part of the researcher or the
client, or
u both (and often some wider community).

u There are in fact action research methods whose main emphasis is on

action, with research as a fringe benefit. At the extreme, the "research"
may take the form of increased understanding on the part of those most
directly involved. For this form of action research the outcomes are
change, and learning for those who take part.

 






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u A minimal definition of action research can be built around two main
criteria:
u (1) that it pursued both action and research outcomes; in a sense, it was true
to label; and
u (2) that it was a cyclic process, with critical reflection a component in each
cycle.

u 

á$$ (2) define Action Research as :-
u Action research is a form of collective, self-reflective inquiry that
participants in social situation undertake to improve : (1) the rationality and
justice of their own social or educational practices ; (2) the participants¶
understanding of these practices and the situations in which they carry out
this practices. Groups of participants can be teachers , students , parents ,
workplace colleagues , social activists or any other community members ±
that is , any group with a shared concern. The approach is action research
only when it is collaborative and achieved through the critically examined
action of individual group members.

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 2urt Lewin is generally considered the
µfather¶ of action research. He is a German social and experimental
psychologist, and one of the founders of the Gestalt school, he was
concerned with social problems, and focused on participative group
processes for addressing conflict, crises, and change, generally within
organizations.
u A paper title è. 0

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2 ,written by
Lewin for the first edition of Reading in Social Psychology pertaining
to changing food habits; summarized that action research consisted in
analysis, act-finding, conceptualization, planning , execution, more
fact-finding or evaluation, and then a repetition of this whole circle of
activities; indeed , a spiral of such circles.

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u This aphorism may seem appropriate if you are a picky

housekeeper, but more and more people are beginning to realize
it can also apply to large corporations, community development
projects by NGOs, and even national governments. Such entities
exist increasingly in an interdependent world, and are relying on
Action Research as a means of coming to grips with their
constantly changing and turbulent environments.
u 3






u Action research is a research method which is usually mostly qualitative
and usually participative. Its very name describes its aims: to achieve
both action and research outcomes within a single study.
u Action research is a flexible spiral process which allows action (change,
improvement) and research (understanding, knowledge) to be achieved
at the same time. The understanding allows more informed change and
at the same time is informed by that change. People affected by the
change are usually involved in the action research. This allows the
understanding to be widely shared and the change to be pursued with
commitment.
u Action research consists of a family of research methodologies
which pursue action and research outcomes at the same time. It
therefore has some components which resemble consultancy or
change agency, and some which resemble field research.
u In actuality there are two distinct families of action
research. One has research as its main emphasis, but tries to do
this in ways which provide action outcomes too. The other has
action as its focus, and the research mostly takes the form of
understanding on the part of those involved. If it adds to
published knowledge, that is a rare bonus.
u >onventional experimental research, for good reason, has
developed certain principles to guide its conduct. These
principles are appropriate for certain types of research; but they
can actually inhibit effective change. Action research has had to
develop a different set of principles. It also has some
characteristic differences from most other qualitative methods.
u Action research tends to be...
u cyclic -- similar steps tend to recur, in a similar sequence;
u participative -- the clients and informants are involved as
partners, or at least active participants, in the research process;
u qualitative -- it deals more often with language than with
numbers; and
u reflective -- critical reflection upon the process and outcomes are
important parts of each cycle.
u To achieve action, action research is 

0
-
. It has to be
able to respond to the emerging needs of the situation. It must
be flexible in a way that some research methods cannot be.
u Action research is

$
. The process takes place
gradually. Its cyclic nature helps responsiveness. It also aids
rigour. The early cycles are used to help decide how to
conduct the later cycles. In the later cycles, the interpretations
developed in the early cycles can be tested and challenged and
refined.
u In most instances the use of qualitative information increases
responsiveness. It is possible to work in natural language,
which is easier for informants. There is no need to develop a
metric (which may have to be abandoned later if it doesn't fit
the emerging situation).
u The use of language also makes the whole process more accessible
to participants. They can develop enough understanding to become
co-researchers in many situations.
u One crucial step in each cycle consists of +
+
. The
researcher and others involved first recollect and then critique what
has already happened. The increased understanding which emerges
from the critical reflection is then put to good use in designing the
later steps.
u V +-
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u áost action research is qualitative. Some is a mix of qualitative

and quantitative. All else being equal, numbers do offer
advantages. In field settings, though, one often has to make
other sacrifices to be able to use them. áost importantly,
sometimes numbers are not easily applied to some features of a
study. If these include features of particular interest or
importance, the choice is between qualitative research or
omitting important features.
u In addition, developing a suitable quantitative measure is often
difficult and time-consuming. It may be more time-efficient to
use qualitative data.
u Action research is true to label: it pursues action and research
outcomes. It is most effective when the end result emerges from
the data. The conclusions drawn are data-based, preferably
drawing the data from multiple sources. The conclusions emerge
slowly over the course of the study. At each cycle the researchers
challenge the emerging conclusions by vigorously pursuing
disconfirming evidence.
u The major justification for action research methods is that they
can be responsive to the situation in a way that many other
research methods can not be, at least in the short term. On these
grounds I think action research will usually, though perhaps not
always, be cyclic in nature. In the interests of rigour, each cycle
will include critical reflection. In most instances it will also be
qualitative and participative to some extent.
u 1



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u les, though it is usually qualitative. áost of the time action research uses
natural language rather than numbers: the use of natural language suits a
paradigm which is participative and responsive to the situation.

u People communicate naturally in language. >ommunication is an important

part of action research, especially in its more participative varieties.

u Quantitative measures can be valuable. But developing them requires a

substantial investment in time. This may not be warranted if you are likely to
change your mind about the measures that you need. When suitable
quantitative measures are available, there is no reason why they may not be
used.
u
u Qualitative and quantitative approaches can often complement each other
well. For example, you might carry out a quantitative survey or other
activity. These data might then be interpreted qualitatively by the people
within the system being analysed .
u 1 +

u There are many ways of describing the cycles. 



á$$, for example, describe each as having four elements: plan,
act, observe, reflect. The important characteristic of each cycle is that
the researcher plans before acting, and reflects on the findings and the
method after acting. The reflection at the end of each cycle feeds into
the planning for the next cycle.
u A typical cycle may look something like this:
u  ecide which questions you wish to have answered; if this is the
first step in the process, it may be a very broad question: "How does
this system work?", perhaps.
u  ecide who to ask, and how to ask them. (This and the previous
step are both "plan".)
u ! Ask. (This is the "act" component.)
u , >heck the information you collected; devise ways of testing it in
the next cycle.
u , Interpret the information -- what does it mean? evise ways of
testing your interpretation in the next cycle.
u , >heck the adequacy of your choice of participants and way of
collecting information. Amend them for the next cycle if desirable.
u , >heck your data and interpretation against the relevant
literature; you may not do this for every step, but may limit it to
every few cycles. (This and the three prior steps are part of
reflection.)
u and return to step 1a of the next cycle with an improved
methodology, questions, and sample of participants.
u The planning and reflection, and perhaps the data collection,
will probably be carried out with the help of participants from
the client group.
u In fact, there are cycles within cycles. If you are using
interviews for data collection, each interview is a cycle. The
sequence of interviews forms another cycle, as do the other
forms of data-collection you use. In turn, they are part of the
still larger cycle of the overall project.
u The cycle best known in Australia is probably that of &
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and his colleagues at 
-

 . The steps
are:
u plan --> act --> observe --> reflect (and then --> plan etc.)
u The reflection leads on to the next stage of planning. The
"planning" isn't a separate and prior step; it is embedded in the
action and reflection. Short, multiple cycles allow greater
rigour to be achieved.
u As change is intended to result, effective action research
depends upon the agreement and commitment of those
affected by it. This is usually generated by involving them
directly in the research process. In many instances,
researchers try to involve them as equal partners.
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mean workable, equitable and sustainable outcomes
i.e. that the change works, it is fair and it will last. For success in
these 3 elements, participation by the stakeholders is essential
because:
u they are familiar with the situation under research so they are able
to identify the initial presenting issues very clearly;
u they know the history and can tell you what has been tried, and
what might be culturally acceptable;
u they are able to act themselves and to intimately evaluate
solutions as to their suitability for their particular environment;
u they will be there after my involvement in the research is
complete and will be able to progress the actions because they
will have learnt about the issues along the way;
u they will have developed relationships along the way which
will assist in progressing the actions; and
u finally, I believe in the old saying that "two heads are better
than one". And it has been my repeated experience that
stakeholders can often come up with a better solution together
than any one of us would have separately.
u Action research is not widely used because it is not well
understood. There are, I think, two main reasons for this. Firstly, it is
very different from scientific method, with which it is inevitably
compared. Secondly, some practitioners, with a poor understanding of
action research, call what they do "action research" when it is simply
unevaluated action. This gives action research a poor reputation.
u Action research is a research paradigm which allows you to develop
knowledge or understanding as part of practice. It allows research to be
done in situations where other research methods may be difficult to
use. For instance, you may find it useful if...
u you must remain flexible
u or you wish to involve the people in the system being researched
u or you wish to bring about change at the same time
u or the situation is too ambiguous to frame a precise research question.
u In short, action research is a useful way of doing research
if you are a practitioner who wishes to improve your
understanding of your practice. Its other common use is
by activists who wish to engage the clients as co-
researchers. It can also be used for preliminary or pilot
research before using some other research approach.
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u There are a number of reasons why you might choose to do action research,
including for thesis research...

u «.. Action research lends itself to use in work or community

situations. Practitioners, people who work as agents of change, can use it a

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u «« When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase

the amount they learn consciously from their experience.

u ««. Action research is usually participative. This implies a partnership

between you and your clients. lou may find this more ethically

satisfying. For some purposes it may also be more occupationally relevant.

u 
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u There are many ways to do action research. It is a research

paradigm which subsumes a variety of research
approaches. Within the paradigm there are several established
methodologies. Some examples are >heckland¶s (1981) soft
systems analysis, Argyris¶ (1985) action science, and 2emmis¶
critical action research (>arr and 2emmis, 1986) and Patton¶s
(1990) approach to evaluation. Each of these methodologies
draws on a number of methods for information collection and

interpretation, for example interviewing and content analysis.

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u In its pursuit of understanding and change, and its use of

participation, action research is unable to use the methods
of experimental research to develop a warrant for its
assertions. It requires a different approach.
u Action research achieves this in the first place by being
critically reflective within a cyclic process. In addition, at
all stages, the researcher attempts to find exceptions to the
data so far collected, and to disconfirm the emerging
interpretations.
u Œ
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u It is when you wish to achieve understanding and change at the

same time. As the description above reveals, most action
research is cyclic or spiral. It alternates between action and
critical reflection as it moves forward. The reflection begins
with critical review of the situation and of past actions. It is
followed by informed planning of the next action.
u There are cycles within cycles within cycles. Some extend
across an entire study. Others occupy only minutes or less. The
result can be a very flexible and responsive process. When each
cycle includes a vigorous seeking out of disconfirming evidence
the flexibility is also accompanied by research rigor. The people
affected by the change are involved in the action and the critical
reflection. Understanding is widely shared, and so is
commitment to any planned change.
u Action research certainly isn't the only research process. It
isn't even the only process for researching change. However,
it is a process well suited to situations where you wish to
achieve change (the "action") and understanding (the
"research") at the same time.
u
u Good action research is like good social consultancy or
community or organizational change. It draws on the same
skills and procedures. It offers the same satisfactions. The

costs are that it takes time, energy and creativity.

u 


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u Action Research is more of a holistic approach to problem-solving, rather than a

single method for collecting and analyzing data. Thus, it allows for several
different research tools to be used as the project is conducted. These various
methods, which are generally common to the qualitative research paradigm,
include: keeping a research journal, document collection and analysis,
participant observation recordings, questionnaire surveys, structured and
unstructured interviews, and case studies.

u Action research projects are generally situationally unique, but there are
elements in the methods that can be used by other researchers in different
circumstances.
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u The characteristics of the new information

technologies, especially that of computer
conferencing, which allows group
communications to take place outside of
the bounds of time and space, have the
potential to be well suited to action
research.
u Generally action research is research by particular
people on their own work to help them improve what
they do, including how they work with and for
others. Action Research does not treat people as
objects. It treats people as autonomous, responsible
agents who participate actively in making their own
histories by knowing what they are doing.

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