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Learning

Learning

Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.

Learning
Learning
••Involves
Involveschange
change
••Is
Isrelatively
relativelypermanent
permanent
••Is
Isacquired
acquiredthrough
throughexperience
experience

2–1
Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience
Learning components:

2-2
2–2
Theories
Theories of
of Learning
Learning

Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.

Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
••Unconditioned
Unconditionedstimulus
stimulus
••Unconditioned
Unconditionedresponse
response
••Conditioned
Conditionedstimulus
stimulus
••Conditioned
Conditionedresponse
response
2–3
Classical
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning
 Pavlov’s Dog Experiment
 Key Concepts:
– Unconditioned stimulus
• A naturally occurring phenomenon.
– Unconditioned response
• The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.
– Conditioned stimulus
• An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.
– Conditioned response
• The response to the artificial stimulus.
This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not
voluntary – not the best theory for OB learning.

2-4
2–4
Source: The Far Side ®
by Gary Larson © 1993
Far Works, Inc. All rights
reserved. Used with
permission.

E X H I B I T 2–3
E X H I B I T 2–3

2–5
Theories
Theories of
of Learning
Learning (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
••Reflexive
Reflexive(unlearned)
(unlearned)behavior
behavior
••Conditioned
Conditioned(learned)
(learned)behavior
behavior
••Reinforcement
Reinforcement

2–6
Operant
Operant Conditioning
Conditioning
 B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: behavior
follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
 Key Concepts:
– Conditioned behavior: voluntary behavior that is
learned, not reflexive.
– Reinforcement: the consequences of behavior which
can increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior
repetition.
– Pleasing consequences increase likelihood of repetition.
– Rewards are most effective immediately after
performance.
– Unrewarded/punished behavior is unlikely to be
repeated.
2–7
Theories
Theories of
of Learning
Learning (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.

Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
••Attentional
Attentionalprocesses
processes
••Retention
Retentionprocesses
processes
••Motor
Motorreproduction
reproductionprocesses
processes
••Reinforcement
Reinforcementprocesses
processes

2–8
Social-Learning
Social-Learning Theory
Theory
 Based on the idea that people can also learn
indirectly: by observation, reading, or just hearing
about someone else’s – a model’s – experiences.
 Key Concepts:
– Attentional processes
• Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to
learn.
– Retention processes
• Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned.
– Motor reproduction processes
• Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing.
– Reinforcement processes
• Positive incentives motivate learners.

2–9
Theories
Theories of
of Learning
Learning (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.

Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
••Reinforcement
Reinforcementis
isrequired
requiredto
tochange
changebehavior.
behavior.
••Some
Somerewards
rewardsare
aremore
moreeffective
effectivethan
thanothers.
others.
••The
Thetiming
timingof
ofreinforcement
reinforcementaffects
affectslearning
learning
speed
speedand
andpermanence.
permanence.

2–10
Types
Types of
of Reinforcement
Reinforcement
 Positive reinforcement
– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
 Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
desired behavior occurs.
 Punishment
– Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an
undesirable behavior.
 Extinction
– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its
cessation.

2–11
Schedules
Schedules of
of Reinforcement
Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.

2–12
Schedules
Schedules of
of Reinforcement
Reinforcement (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.

2–13
Schedules
Schedules of
of Reinforcement
Reinforcement (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Fixed-ratio

E X H I B I T 2–4
E X H I B I T 2–4

2–14
Intermittent
Intermittent Schedules
Schedules of
of Reinforcement
Reinforcement

E X H I B I T 2–5
E X H I B I T 2–5

2–15
Intermittent
Intermittent Schedules
Schedules of
of Reinforcement
Reinforcement (cont’d)
(cont’d)

E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)

2–16
Social
Social learning
learning theory
theory

Behavioural modelling
a. observe model’s behaviour
b. remember important actions
c. try to reproduce actions through
practice

2–17
Social
Social learning
learning theory
theory
1. Behavioural modelling
 Model should be respected and reinforced
 Good for learning tacit / IMPLIED knowledge
and skills
• Enhances self-efficacy (is an individual's
estimate or personal judgment of his or her
own ability to succeed in reaching a specific
goal)
– belief that you have the ability, motivation
and resources to complete a task successfully

2–18
Social
Social learning
learning theory
theory
2. Learning behaviour consequences
 We learn to anticipate the consequences of future
actions through logic / judgement and by
observing the experiences of others

2–19
Social
Social learning
learning theory
theory
3. Self-reinforcement
 Employee controls a reinforcer (e.g. having a
break), but doesn’t ‘take’ the reinforcer until a
self-set goal is done
 Increasingly important as employees manage
themselves (by monitoring & observing your own
behavior)
 people are also able to change their behavior by
reinforcing themselves

2–20
Behavior
Behavior Modification
Modification

OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts
to individuals in the work setting.

Five
FiveStep
StepProblem-Solving
Problem-SolvingModel
Model
1.1. Identify
Identifycritical
criticalbehaviors
behaviors
2.2. Develop
Developbaseline
baselinedata
data
3.3. Identify
Identifybehavioral
behavioralconsequences
consequences
4.4. Develop
Developand
andapply
applyintervention
intervention
5.5. Evaluate
Evaluateperformance
performanceimprovement
improvement
2–21
OB
OB MOD
MOD Organizational
Organizational Applications
Applications

 Well Pay versus Sick Pay


– Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
absence.
 Employee Discipline
– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
 Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
 Self-management
– Reduces the need for external management control.

2–22
What
What Is
Is Perception,
Perception, and
and Why
Why Is
Is ItIt Important?
Important?

Perception
A process by which
••People’s
People’s behavior
behavior isis
individuals organize and based
based on on their
their
interpret their sensory perception
perception of of what
what
impressions in order to reality
reality is,is, not
not on
on
give meaning to their reality
reality itself.
itself.
environment.
••The
The world
world as as itit isis
perceived
perceived isis thethe worldworld
that
that isis behaviorally
behaviorally
important.
important.

5–23
What
Whatisisthe
theperceptual
perceptualprocess?
process?

 Stages of the perceptual process.


– Information attention and selection.

– Organization of information.

– Information interpretation.

– Information retrieval.

5–24
Factors
FactorsThat
That
Influence
Influence
Perception
Perception

E X H I B I T 5–1
E X H I B I T 5–1

5–25
Person
Person Perception:
Perception: Making
Making Judgments
Judgments About
About
Others
Others

Attribution Theory
When individuals observe
behavior, they attempt to
determine whether it is
internally or externally
caused.

Distinctiveness:
Distinctiveness:shows
showsdifferent
differentbehaviors
behaviorsinindifferent
differentsituations.
situations.
Consensus:
Consensus:response
responseisisthe
thesame
sameasasothers
otherstotosame
samesituation.
situation.
Consistency:
Consistency:responds
respondsininthe
thesame
sameway
wayover
overtime.
time.

5–26
Attribution
AttributionTheory
Theory E X H I B I T 5–2
E X H I B I T 5–2

5–27
Errors
Errors and
and Biases
Biases in
in Attributions
Attributions
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to underestimate
the influence of external factors
and overestimate the influence
of internal factors when making
judgments about the behavior
of others.

5–28
Errors
Errors and
and Biases
Biases in
in Attributions
Attributions (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for individuals
to attribute their own
successes to internal factors
while putting the blame for
failures on external factors.

5–29
Frequently
Frequently Used
Used Shortcuts
Shortcuts in
in Judging
Judging Others
Others

Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience,
and attitudes.

5–30
Frequently
Frequently Used
Used Shortcuts
Shortcuts in
in Judging
Judging Others
Others
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression
about an individual on the
basis of a single characteristic

Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that
are affected by comparisons with other
people recently encountered who rank higher
or lower on the same characteristics.

5–31
Frequently
Frequently Used
Used Shortcuts
Shortcuts in
in Judging
Judging Others
Others

Projection Stereotyping
Attributing one’s own Judging someone on the
characteristics to other basis of one’s perception of
people. the group to which that
person belongs.

5–32
Specific
Specific Applications
Applications in
in Organizations
Organizations
 Employment Interview
– Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of
interviewers’ judgments of applicants.
 Performance Expectations
– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or
higher performance of employees reflects preconceived
leader expectations about employee capabilities.
 Ethnic Profiling
– A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals
is singled out—typically on the basis of race or ethnicity
—for intensive inquiry, scrutinizing, or investigation.

5–33
Specific
Specific Applications
Applications in
in Organizations
Organizations (cont’d)
(cont’d)
 Performance Evaluations
– Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental)
perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job
performance.
 Employee Effort
– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.

5–34

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