Bioteknologi Hutan
Kuliah Pengantar Bioteknologi Kehutanan
Pokok Bahasan 1 Pendahuluan - Pengertian dan Sejarah
- Prospek dan Tantangan
Pokok Bahasan 2 Genetika Molekuler Tanaman
- Materi Genetik
- Regulasi dan Ekspresi Gen
- Perubahan Materi Genetik
Pokok Bahasan 3 Rekayasan Gen
- Kloning-transformasi
- Metode-transformasi
Pokok Bahasan 4 Sistem Silvikultur Jaringan
- Mikropropagasi dan Kultur Sel
- Kultur Haploid dan Variasi Somaklonal
Pokok Bahasan 5 Penerapan Bioteknologi
- Identifikasi dan Klasifikasi Molekuler
(Isoenzym, RFLP, RAPD, sidik jari)
- Perlindungan terhadap Hama & Penyakit
- Organisme Pemacu Pertumbuhan Tanaman
- Organisme Transgenik
Pengertian dan Sejarah
Bioteknologi :
Teknologi yang menggunakan sistem hayati
(proses-proses biologi) untuk mendapatkan
barang dan jasa yang berguna bagi kesejahteraan
manusia
Sejarah
1944 Avery, MacLeod dan McCarty membuktikan bahwa DNA merupakan materi genetik.
1972 Khorana dan rekan-rekannya dapat mensintesis keseluruhan gen yang mengkode tRNA
1976 Pertama kali dikeluarkan pedoman untuk penelitian dalam bidang DNA rekombinan
1978 Perusahaan Genentech memproduksi insulin manusia pada sel bakteri Escherichia coli
1980 Badan pengadilan Amerika Serikat menetapkan peraturan dalam kasus Diamond VS Chakrabarty yang melakukan
manipulasi mikroorganisme yang dipatenkan.
1981 Pertama kalinya alat otomatis untuk sintesis DNA dijual secara komersial
1981 Pertama kalinya kit diagnostik yang dibuat dari antibodi monoklonal digunakan secara luas di Amerika Serikat
1982 Pertama kalinya vaksin hewan diproduksi menggunakan teknologi DNA rekombinan di Eropa
1983 Ti plasmid yang telah direkayasa digunakan untuk transformasi pada tanaman
1988 Badan paten Amerika Serikat mengumkan bahwa tikus yang direkayasa secara genetis peka terhadap kanker
1990 Amerika Serikat mengijinkan digunakannya sel tubuh manusia untuk kegiatan penelitian mengenai terapi gen.
Fermentasi
Yeast
Fermented
Alcohol
Ether
Amino acid
Protein
Sugar
Bioteknologi tradisional :
Seleksi bahan, mikrobia yaang digunakan dan modifikasi
lingkungan untuk memperoleh produk optimal.
Misal : pembuatan tempe, tape, roti, pengomposan sampah
Bioteknologi modern :
Memanfaatkan ketrampilan manusia dalam melakukan
manipulasi makhluk hidup agar dapat digunakan untuk
menghasilkan suatu barang yang diinginkan. Misal rekayasa
genetik
Pengertian & Sejarah
Rekayasa genetik :
Teknik untuk menghasilkan molekul DNA yang berisi gen
baru yang diinginkan atau kombinasi gen-gen baru atau
dapat dikatakan sebagai manipulasi organisme
1) Tinjauan ekologik
a) GMO mengalahkan spesies alami, menggantikan spesias
alami, mengurangi keanekargaman hayati.
b) GMO berubah prilaku dibandingkan dengan aslinya.
c) Gen yang disisipkan dapat pindah ke kerabat dekat
spesies GMO, termasuk karakteristik gen yang dimaksud.
Penambahan gen karakter baru, kemampuan baru,
kemampuan hayati baru.
• Kesetabilan ‘gen asing’ atau dapat berubah dan
diekspresikan berbeda oleh organisme yang tertular gen
asing – mutasi
• Penarikan ‘gen asing’ jika masuk dalam organisme non
target
• Terganggunya ‘rantai makanan'
• Terganggunya organisme non target
2) Tinjauan kesehatan
a) Gangguan kesehatan karena produk gen asing (dalam
waktu panjang)
b) Bahaya atau tidaknya gen-gen penyerta
2) Perdagangan global
Terima kasih
The History of
Biotechnology
http://www.i-s-b.org/wissen/timeline/englisch/
1859
Charles Darwin publishes his
book (
On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection
). According to this book
evolution is life´s motor.
The interplay of mutation
and selection endows living
beings with optimized traits
in order to survive. These
principles are also valid for
the so-called 'chemical
evolution' of biomolecules
and are being used in
laboratories for in vitro
optimizing of wanted
qualities in molecules
1865
Gregor Mendel finds that
independent 'factors' are
responsible for the heredity
of traits from one
generation to the next
according to a set of
(Mendelian) priciples.
1869
Friedrich Miescher discovers
an acidic substance in the
nucleus of cells which he
names 'nuclein'. By
elemental analysis he finds
14 % nitrogen, 3 %
phosphorus, and 2 % sulfur
(from proteins). Since the
substance cannot be
cleaved by the proteolytic
enzyme pepsin Miescher
concludes that this
substance is not a protein.
1879
Walther Flemming observes
the separation of
chromosomes during
mitosis but fails to fully
understand its meaning. He
counts 24 pairs of
chromosomes, a number
which will be corrected to
23 later in 1956 by the
Indonesian scientist Joe-
Han Tijo.
1900
William Bateson introduces
'genetics' as a scientific
discipline
Hugo de Vries, Erich Tschermak
von Seysenegg and Carl Correns
independently rediscover the
Mendelian principles
Hugo de Vries
defines the
meaning of
'mutations'
1902
Walter Sutton observes in
grasshoppers' cells that
chromosomes carry the
Mendelian 'factors of
heredity', i.e. the genetic
information.
1909
Wilhelm Johansen coins the
terms 'gene', 'genotype',
and 'phenotype' referring to
Mendel's 'factors'.
Archibald Garrod confirms
the
hereditary nature of four me
tabolic diseases
. He publishes "Inborn
Errors of Metabolism"
1910
Thomas Hunt Morgan's
studies in the biology of
Drosophila melanogaster
confirm that certain traits
are inherited sex-
specifically. He also proves
that some phenotypes
result from several genes
located on different
chromosomes.
1927
Herman Muller finds that
energetic radiation causes
defects in the
chromosomes, i.e.
mutations.
1928
Fred Griffith demonstrates
that material from killed
bacteria of the pathogenic
strain Streptococcus
pneumoniae S ('smooth') is
taken up from living ones of
the non-pathogenic strain
Streptococcus pneumoniae
R ('rough') which are
Pneumococcus pneumoniae subsequently 'transformed'
into the pathogenic S-strain.
1944
Chromosomen einer
menschlichen Zelle
Marshall Nirenberg
1962
John Gurdon claims to have
reproduced frogs from the
epithelium cells of Xenopus
laevis. J. B. S. Haldane
coins 'cloning' when
describing these debated
experiments.
Xenopus laevis
South African
clawed frogs
John Gurdon
1966
Mainly due to the work of Har
Gobind Khorana the
'Genetic Code' is
completely known.
1968
Werner Arber discovers
enzymes, so-called
nucleases, which digest
DNA double strands from
the ends.
1969
Jonathan Beckwith is
the first to isolate a
complete gene, in this
case a gene from the
bacterial sugar
metabolism.
1970
Hamilton Smith discovers an enzyme (HindII)
which specifically cleaves DNA double
strands
Har Gobind Khorana synthesizes
a complete gene (that of an
alanine t-RNA) in vitro.
The
Biotechnology Industr
y Organization BIO
is created by merging
two smaller trade
associations
1994
Genetically modified tomatoes are on sale in the U.S. Cans
containing puree from transgenic tomatoes are on the
shelves of british supermarkets.
1995
The Institute for Genomic
Research (TIGR) publishes the
first complete sequence of the
genome of a free-living
organism, the bacterium
Haemophilus influenzae
Germany launches the BioRegio
contest. 17 regions compete in
presenting the best blueprint for
the development of commercial
biotechnology to an
international jury. The three
winning regions will share the
price of DM 150m.
1996
The complete sequencing of the baker's yeast'
genome is accomplished by close collaboration
of laboratories in Europe, Japan, and the U.S.
The Saccharomyces cervisiae genome ist the
first eucaryotic genome completely sequenced.
Patrick Browne of
Stanford University
presents the first
'gene chip'
containing 6116
different gene In the U.S.
specific sequences transgenic plants
of the baker's yeast grow on more than
genome. 1.9 million hectares
1997
Rice genome
Syngenta (Basel, Switzerland), in
collaboration with Myriad Genetics
(Salt Lake City, UT), announced the
completed sequencing of the
genome of Oryza sativa japonica
2001
RNA interference
Thomas Tuschl is
the first to
demonstrate that
RNA interference
(RNAi) is also
working with
mammalian cells.
2002
Genomes of the malaria agent and its carrier sequenced
Researchers of the Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR),
the Sanger Institute (UK), and Stanford University publish the
genomic sequence of Plasmodium falciparum and
Plasmodium yoelii. The protozoa P. falciparum causes
malaria.
The genome of its carrier Anopheles gambiae is also
sequenced and published.
2003…
Genome of SARS virus
sequenced
Within three weeks after its
discovery scientists of the
Michael Smith Genome
Sciences Centre in British
Columbia (Vancouver, Canada)
succeeded in sequencing the
genome of the virus causing
severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS). The RNA
virus remotely resembles
corona virus species and
contains roughly 30,000 genes.
2003
Germ cells from stem cells
Karin Hübner and Hans Schöler
of the University of
Pennnsylvania succeeded in
generating oocytes from murine
stem cells which were able to
grow into further embryonic
stages. The experiment
demonstrates the potential of
pluripotent stem cells to acquire
totipotency via a germ line cell
stage
2004…
The number of
identified genes
decreases again
compared with previous
estimations.
19,599 have been
confirmed to encode
proteins, 2188 are
suspected to encode for
proteins. 1183 genes
have been generated
through duplication of
99.999% accuracy genes, 33 genes
Three years after the publication of appear to have been
the first draft a far more precise degenerated into
version of the sequence of the disfunctional
human genome is published. pseudogenes.
2004…
from adult and
newborn mice and
eventually one of
460 experiments
resulted in a living
animal, being 14
month old at the
time of publication.
Critical for success
was the
suppression of a
gene which
Fatherless mouse normally controls
Tomohiro Kono of the Tokyo the imprinting of
University of Agriculture presented chromosomal DNA
the first mouse which was obtained from mother and
from oocytes only. His team father.
combined the genomes of oocytes
2004
Mice from cancer cells
Rudolph Jaenisch of MIT and Lynda Chin of the Dana
Farber Cancer Institute generated cloned mice from cancer
cells by stuffing the nuclei of melanoma cells into de-
nucleated mouse oocytes. The resulting blastocysts yielded
stem cells which were suitable for transplantation into
normal blastocysts which eventually developed into living
animals. Some genetic markers of the melanoma cells were
found again in the animal, but the epigentic patterns had
gone lost - showing that epigenetic modifcations are both
reversible and late stage in the transformation of normal
cells into melanoma cells.
Terima kasih