SpaceTEC Certification

Readiness Course
Applied Mechanics

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 Introduction

• Objective:

– Provide basis for demonstrating a basic

knowledge which will allow you to:
• Interpret a basic drawing
• Produce a layout/template
• Fabricate a project

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 Applied Mechanics Topics
• Machine Shop Safety
• Hand Tools
– Non-Cutting
– Cutting
• Drill Presses, Twist Drills, Drilling Holes
• Measurement
• Hardware and Materials
• Basic Calculations
• Blueprint Reading and Interpreting Technical
Drawings
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 Objectives

• Recognize safe and unsafe work practices in

a shop
• Identify and correct hazards in the shop area
• Perform your job in a manner that is safe for
you and other workers

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 Safety in the Shop

Must consider
– Personal protection and grooming
– Proper housekeeping
– Safe work practices
– Fire protection

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 Personal Protection and
Grooming
• Always wear approved eye protection
– Plain safety glasses with side shields
– Plastic safety goggles
– Face shields

• Note: Lenses MUST be made of

approved safety shatterproof glass !

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 Personal Protection and
Grooming

• Never wear loose clothing

• Remove wrist watches, rings and bracelets
• Never wear gloves when operating machinery
• Long hair must be protected by hair net or cap
• No canvas or open-toes sandals

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 Housekeeping

• Stop machine before cleaning it

• Keep machine, floors and hand tools clean
• Use brush and not cloth to remove chips
• Never use compressed air to remove chips
from machine

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 Safe Work Practices

• Before operating any machine you must understand

its mechanism and how to stop
• Always stop machine before measuring, cleaning, or
making any adjustments
• Clamp all work securely in place prior to operation
• Use proper wrench for job

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 Safe Work Practices

• Pressured Lines
– Flexible pressurized lines
• Can Experience 5% to 8% growth
– Relieve Stress on fluid or pneumatic lines
• Bends in lines help take up surges
• Accumulators also take up surges
– Compressed air in the shop area
• Check filters for moisture
• Check operating pressure before using pneumatic tools

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 Safe Work Practices.
• Cutting, Forming, Drilling, Sanding
• Always Wear eye protection/dust mask
– Place work in a suitable holder:
• Bench-mounted vise
– Soft metal caps over steel jaws to protect work
– When Cutting:
• Keep hands, fingers away from cutting surfaces
– When Drilling:
• Back up materials
– Don’t use your hands!
– Always know what is behind
• Keep work from spinning
– Place clamp or table stop on right-hand side of work
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 Fire Protection

• Always dispose of oily rags in proper metal

containers
• Know location and operation of every fire
extinguisher
• Know location of nearest fire exit from
building
• Know location of nearest fire-alarm box and
its operating procedure

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 Hand Tools

• Two Basic Types

• Noncutting
– Include vises, hammers, screwdrivers, wrenches
and pliers
– Used basically for holding, assembling or
dismantling parts
• Cutting
– Includes Chisels, Saws (Hacksaws), Hand Files,
Punches, Reamers, tap and dies,etc.
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 Hand Tools

• Tool Inventory

• Tool Selection

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools

• Hammers and Mallets

– Metal-Head Hammers
• The Ball Peen Hammer

 
– Hammer head held in place
 
  by a wedge
                                                               
                                                               

– Face of the hammer is the

                                                 
   
   

         

striking surface
– The Ball Peen Hammer is
the hammer most often
used by machinists

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools
• Hammers and Mallets
– Soft-Faced Hammer
» Used for forming soft metals
» Striking easily-damaged surfaces
» Should Not be used for striking punches,
chisels, bolts, or nails
– Dead Blow Hammer

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools
• Hammers and Mallets
Mallet
• Hammer-like tool
– Made of hickory, rawhide, rubber, or plastic
• Used for shaping metal or wood-working

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools
• Screwdrivers
– Classified by shape, type of blade, and blade length
• Common – slotted head
• Phillips – head forms perfect cross

 
• Offset – used when vertical space is limited
– Sizes
• Flat screwdrivers are generally sized by width of blade or size screw it fits
• Almost all other types (Phillips, etc) are sized by point sizes
– Phillips #1, #2, #3, #4 are most common
                                                   

               

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Screwdriver Drives

(a) Slotted, (b) Phillips,
(c) Pozidriv, (d) Torx, (e) Hex,
(f) Robertson, (g) Tri-Wing,
(h) Torq-Set, (i) Spanner

Phillips Square Torx

Slotted Tri Wing Torq Set

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools

• Screwdrivers
– Made for one purpose only – loosening or
tightening screws
– When using a screwdriver,
• Select the largest blade that will fill the screw head
• Wrong size blade will damage screw head and
screwdriver blade

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools

• Punches
– Center

 
• Used to start holes for drilling

   – Prick
• Automatic or manual
                                                                   
                                                              
                                                           
    
       
                                                   

• Used to transfer dimensions

               

– Tapered, or Drive Punch

• Used for driving out rivets, pins, bolts bound in holes
– Pin, or Drift
• Same as tapered only straight shank

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools

• Wrenches – designed to fit a nut or bolt head and

exert a turning motion
– Open End – open parallel jaws on one or both ends
– Box End – box, or completely surround bolt head or nut
– Combination – open end on one end, box of the same size
on the other
– Socket – square drive on one end that fits T, ratchet,
screwdriver grip, speed handle
– Adjustable – one fixed jaw, one adjusted by thumbscrew
– Special
• Hook Spanner – curved arm with hook for slotted nuts
• Allen – six-sided bars shaped in an “L”

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools

– Torque wrench – precision tool to

measure amount of turning or twisting
force applied
– Deflecting beam
– Dial indicating
– Micrometer setting

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Torque wrench

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 Torque Wrench

• Torque
– Also known as twisting force
• Force X Distance (Moment)
– Used to deliver loads safely throughout a structure
– F, L, T, where:
• F = Force
• L = Lever length
• T = Applied Torque

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 Torque Wrench
• Torque wrench extensions
– Increase lever length
– Increase applied force
– Require recalculation of applied force
• Formula:
Tw = Te X A
B
Where: A = Lever length of wrench
B = Lever length of wrench plus extension
Te = Required torque on bolt
Tw = Torque reading on wrench dial

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 Torque Calculation
w/Extension
• Example:
– 40 ft lbs required torque on 3/8“ bolt
– 4 in. extension necessary at 45-degree angle resulting in 2”
effective length increase on 18” torque wrench

A = Lever length of wrench

Tw = Te (40 ft lbs) X A (18 in.)
B = Lever length of wrench B (18” + 2”)
plus extension
Te = Required torque on bolt Tw = 720 = 36 ft lbs.
Tw = Torque reading on 20
wrench dial

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools
• Use of Machinist Vise

1. Open jaws (1) of vise wide enough to

allow you to insert the object you want
to clamp.
CAUTION
Use brass or copper caps on vise jaws
to protect soft material when clamping.
CAUTION
Do not strike vise with a heavy object or
try to hold large work in a small vise.

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools
• Use of Machinist Vise
2. Insert object (2) to be clamped
between vise jaws and tighten handle (3).
3. Work should be held firmly in place,
but the jaws should not be so tight that
they mar the finish. A piece of rawhide or
leather may be used to protect highly
polished surfaces:
NOTE
When holding hard material in vise jaws
tightened by hand, give the vise handle a
sharp rap for final tightening.

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools
• Soldering Iron Preparation
– Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in.
The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature of about
400°C.
– Dampen the sponge in the stand.
The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold tap for
a moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, not
dripping wet.
– Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up.
You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little solder on the tip.
– Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge.
This will clean the tip.
– Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.
This is called 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the iron's tip to the
joint. It only needs to be done when you plug in the iron, and occasionally
while soldering if you need to wipe the tip clean on the sponge.

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 Non-Cutting Hand Tools
• Soldering Iron Use
– Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle.
Imagine you are going to write your name! Remember to never touch
the hot element or tip.
– Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made.
Make sure it touches the joint. Hold the tip there for a few seconds
and...
– Feed a little solder onto the joint.
It should flow smoothly. Apply the solder to the joint, not the iron.
– Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still.
Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before you move the joint
– Inspect the joint closely.

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 Cutting Hand Tools
• Hacksaw
• Blade teeth always face forward
• Low pressure, let blade do the work

 
 
• Hand Snips
• Straight – cutting straight lines
                                                           
                                                    

•
       

Curved – cutting outside of curves

                                                   
                                            
          

•
                
               

Hawksbill – cutting inside of curves or radii

• Aviation – compound leverage-type for cutting
aluminum alloy or stainless steel sheet
• Left-to-right (red)
• Right-to-left (green)
• Straight (yellow)
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 Chisels
• Hard steel cutting tool for cutting or chipping any
material softer than itself
• Used for:

 
• Shearing rivets
• Splitting seized or damaged nuts from bolts
• Made of eight-sided tempered and hardened tool
steel bar stock
                                           
                                                

• Cutting edge should be beveled 60-70 degrees for

              
              

general use
• Types:
• Flat or cold
• Single or double bevel point
• Round nose
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• Diamond point
 Files
• Files are used for cutting, smoothing off, or removing small
amounts of metal, wood, plastic, or other material.
• Files are made in various lengths, shapes, and cuts.
• Every file has five parts: the point (1), edge (2), face or cutting
teeth(3), heel or shoulder (4) and tang (5).
• The tang is used to attach the handle

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 Hand Files and File Card

• Types of Files
– Flat, mill, square, round or rattial, triangular, three
square, half round, wood and vixen
• Most common is the mill, rattial and vixen
• Clean all files with a File Card
• File in forward direction only
• Keep file well oiled

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 Files
• Most Common files types

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 Use and Care of Files
1. Apply pressure only on forward stroke
2. Do not store files where they rub together
or against other tools
3. Never use file as pry bar or a hammer
4. Do not knock file on vise or other metallic
object to clean it (use brush or file card)
5. Too much pressure also results in
"pinning" which scratches work surface
• Small particles wedged between teeth

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 Hand Cutting Tools
• Reamers
– Used to bring hole to size and produce good finish
– Solid Hand Reamer
• Made of carbon steel or high-speed steel
• Available in inch sizes from .125 - 1.500 in.
– Metric from 1 – 26 mm in diameter
• Not adjustable and may have straight or helical flutes

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 Reamer Use and Precautions

1. Place end of reamer in hole and place tap wrench

on square end of reamer
2. Rotate reamer clockwise to align with hole
3. Check reamer for squareness with work
4. Use cutting lubricant where required
5. Rotate reamer slowly clockwise and apply
downward pressure
6. Never turn reamer backward (counterclockwise),
it will dull teeth
7. Never attempt to remove too much material
8. Frequently clear hole of chips
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 Hand Cutting Tools

• Taps and Dies

– Taps > used to make internal threads
– Dies > used to make external threads

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 Taps
• Made from high quality tool steel, hardened and ground
• Two, three, or four flutes cut lengthwise across threads to
form cutting edges
– Provide room for chips
– Admit cutting fluid to lubricate tap
• End of shank square so either a straight or t-handle tap
wrench can be used to turn tap

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 Taps

• Inch tap markings

– Major diameter
– Number of threads per inch
– Type of thread

½ in.—13 UNC
½ in. = major diameter of tap
13 = number of threads per inch
UNC = Unified National Coarse (type of thread)
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 Taps
• Taper
– Tapered from end six threads
– Used to start thread easily
– Used for tapping hole that goes
through work as well as blind
hole
• Plug
– Tapered for three threads
– Tread hole through workpiece
• Bottoming tap
– Not tapered but chamfered at end
– Used for threading to bottom of
blind hole

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 Tap Drill Size

• Hole drilled to correct tap

drill size
– Leave proper amount of
material for tap to cut
thread (75%)
1 A = body size
TDS  D -
N B = tap drill size
Find tap drill size for a C = minor diameter
7/8 in. –9NC tap
7 1 TDS = tap drill size
TDS  -
8 9 D = major diameter of tap
 .875  .111  .764 in. N = number of threads per inch
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Threading Dies

• Used to cut external threads on round work

• Most common threading dies
– Adjustable split die
– Adjustable screw plate die
– Solid die

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 Threading Dies
• Solid die
– Used for chasing damaged threads
– May be driven by suitable wrench
– Not adjustable

• Adjustable split die

– Has adjusting screw that permits adjustment
over or under standard depth of thread
– Fits into die stock

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 To Thread With a Hand Die

1. Chamfer end of workpiece with file or on

grinder
2. Fasten work securely in vise
3. Select proper die and die stock
4. Lubricate tapered end of die with suitable
cutting lubricant
5. Place tapered end of die squarely on
workpiece
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6. Press down on die stock handles and turn
clockwise several turns
7. Check die to see that it has started
squarely with work
8. If not square, remove die and restart
9. Turn die forward one turn and reverse it
approximately one-half turn to break chip
10. During threading process, apply cutting
fluid frequently
If thread must be cut to shoulder, remove die and restart it
with tapered side of die facing up (complete the thread)
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 Drill Presses
• Used to drill precision holes
– Four main parts:
• Floor stand
• Adjustable table
• Adjustable spindle
• Electric motor
– Always clamp to drill press base
– Drill diameter has no bearing on drill speed
– Drill pressure is critical
– Hard and slow for hard metal; fast for soft
– Make sure drill bit is secured to the chuck
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Drill Press Photo

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 Twist Drills
• Twist Drills
– Hardened shank contains flutes, which form cutting
surfaces, flow cutting fluid, and provide for chip removal
– Included angle of bits:
• 135 degrees
• 118 degrees
• 90 degrees
• 60 degrees

Note: Straight shank drill bits measure up

to ½ inch

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 Drilling Holes
• 135 degrees (included angle)
– High speed, low pressure for very hard materials
• 118 degrees (included angle)
– High pressure, low speed for steel
• 90 degrees (included angle)
– Used primarily for soft material
– Medium pressure
– Low pressure, high speed for aluminum
• 60 degrees (included angle)
– Used primarily for soft material
– Medium pressure
Note: When drill point is about to break through
material, reduce pressure
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www.spacetec.org
 Drilling Holes (Con’t)

• Locate/position hole
– Use center punch
– Drill pilot hole first # 40 bit
– Drill up to size (Square to material)
– If you are reaming, drill hole .0003 to .007
undersize then ream up to size
– Rotate reamer in cutting direction only when
cutting or removing

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 Aerospace Hardware
• Typical Types of Hardware
– Bolts
– Nuts
– Washers
– Screws
– Cotter pins and safety wire
– Rivets
– Turnlock fasteners
– Miscellaneous items such as 0-rings, crush washers, etc.
– Control cable hardware
– Fluid lines and fittings
– Electrical wiring and connectors

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 Hardware
• Bolts – Typical Head Markings

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 Hardware
• Bolts
– A bolt with a single raised dash is a AN corrosion
resistant steel bolt
– An AN Clevis bolt is for shear applications only.
This type of bolt is used only where shear loads
occur and never in tension. It is often inserted as
a mechanical pin in a control surface. They have a
slotted headed
– A bolt head with a triangle, recessed or not, is a
“Close Tolerance” bolt and must be driven into a
hole.

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 Aerospace Bolt ID
• Bolt Sizes
– “AN” represent Air Force – Navy standard for bolt
– If the letter "C" follows the AN designation (ANC) that identifies a
stainless steel bolt. The letter "H" after AN (ANH) identifies a drilled
head bolt.
– The first number after "AN" designates the diameter (1/16"
increments)
– The last number, either single or double digit denotes length; a single
digit denotes nominal length to the 1/8th of an inch; double digit
numbers denote the first digit as a whole measure in inches, the
second an additional nominal sizing to the 1/8 inch measure.
– The "A" at the very end of all the numbers designates that there will
be no hole in the shank. Meaning that the hole is "Absent".

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 Aerospace Bolt ID
• Bolt Sizes
– Example:
AN4-8A

 AN means the bolt is manufactured according

to Air Force-Navy specs.
 4 identifies the diameter of the bolt shank in
1/16" increments
 8 identifies the length of the shank in 1/8"
increments
 A means the shank of the bolt is undrilled (no
letter here means a drilled shank)

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 Safety Wire

• Items shall be safety wired in such a

configuration that the safety wire shall be put
in tension when the parts tend to loosen.
• Safety wiring is considered a redundant means
of securing components to prevent the
component from loosening should the primary
retention capability fails during operation.

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www.spacetec.org
 Aircraft Circular AC 43.13-
1B
• AC 43.13-1B covers all the aspects of general
safety wire practices.
• Three common wire sizes 0.020, 0.032, 0.041.
• Safety wire shall be new for each application.

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 Safety wire pliers

• Four different types

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 Wire
• Should be six to eight turns per inch.
• The pigtail S/B ¼-to ½-inch (three to six twists).

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 Hardware
• Rivets
– Shop head of a rivet is one and one-half (1½) larger than
the shank
– The bucked end is also one and one-half (1½) the shank
diameter
– Aluminum (2117-T) rivets are heat treated by manufacture
and can be driven when used. They are known as field
rivets
– Aluminum (2017–T) is a refrigerated rivet and must be
driven within one hour. The (2024-T) is also a refrigerated
rivet and must be driven within 10 to 20 minutes after
removal from refrigeration.

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 Aerospace Rivets
• Identification
– Types of Solid Shank Rivets
• Universal (AN470 or MS20470)

• Round

• Flathead

• Countersunk (AN426 or MS20426)

• Brazier
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 Aerospace Rivets
• Head of solid shank rivets are marked to identify specific
material of the rivet.
• 1100 very soft material (Plugs)
• 2017T and 2024T (Refrigerated)
• 5056T used to rivet magnesium

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 Aerospace Rivets
• Rivet Installation
– Use a center punch to mark hole, then drill pilot hole
– Drill hole up to size
– Countersink for 100 degree rivet (Pg 542)
– Flat rivet set is used for installing countersunk rivets
– Rivet must be flush with material being riveted
– Universal Rivet, use slightly greater radius rivet set to install rivet
– Spacing is 3X rivet diameter
– Edge distance is minimum of 2x diameter
– Length of rivet protruding is 1 ½ diameter
– Bucked end is 1 ½ diameter

When installing a rivet always use a slightly

larger drill than rivet diameter!
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www.spacetec.org
 Aerospace Rivets

• Drill Bits to use for Rivet Installations

– See “Drill Sizes”
• #40 drill bit for 3/32 rivet
• #30 drill bit for 1/8 rivet
• #20 drill bit for 5/32 rivet
• #10 drill bit for 3/16 rivet
Example: #10 drill bit measures .1935
3/16” rivet diameter is .1875

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 Aerospace Rivets

• Rivet Removal
– Center punch rivet first to indent the head, then
drill center of rivet with one size smaller drill bit.
Drill off the rivet head only!
– Knock out rivet with ball peen hammer using pin
punch slightly smaller than rivet diameter
Critical to keep hole the same diameter!

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 Rivet Measurement
• Rivet Measurement
• AN426AD-4-8 (Countersink)
– #4 is the diameter in 32nds
– #8 is the length in 16ths
– Rivet Pitch is distance between rivets in the
same row
– Question: What would be the necessary length
of the rivet to go through two ¼ inches pieces
of 2024-T3 aluminum and be ready to drive?

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 Rivet Measurement
Answer
• The total thickness is ½ inch or (16/32) plus
we need the rivet to protrude 1 ½ diameter so
we can buck or drive it.
• Therefore the total length of the rivet must be
1/8 X 1.5=.1875 or 3/16 (6/32).
• 6/32 + 16/32 = 22/32.
• The rivet would be an AN426AD-4-11

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 Basic Math

• Fractions
• Of the following fractions what one is most nearly to
0.17187?
• 11/64, 9/32 or 11/32
• What do you have to do?
- Multiplying using a Fractions
35 x 5/7 = _____
How did you arrive with the answer?

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 Basic Math

• Multiplication of Decimals
• 9.45 X 120 = ________
• 2.13 x .203 = ________
– Addition of Decimals
• 2.34 + 37.5 = ________
• 2.34 + 37.5 + .09 = ________

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 Basic Math

• Multiplication of Decimals – Answer:

• 9.45 X 100 = 945
• 9.45 X 20 = 189
• 945 + 189 = 1134

• 2.13 X .200 = .426

• 2.13 X .003 = .00639
• .426 + .00639 = .43239

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 Basic Math

• Addition of Decimals– Answer:

2.34
+ 37.50
= 39.84

2.34
+ 37.50
+ .09
= 39.93

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 Basic Math
– Expressing a decimals as a percentage
• .90 as a percent
• Move the decimal two places to the right
• Affix the percent symbol to the right after dropping the
decimal point
• .90 – 90. – 90%

– Expressing a percent as a decimal

• Keeping in mind that a percent is simply a decimal with
the decimal point moved two places to the right, all that
is necessary to express a percent as a decimal is to move
the decimal point two places to the left

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 Basic Math
• Areas

Area = pi r 2 Area = axb

• Volumes

Volume = [pi] r2 h Volume = axbxc

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 Basic Math
• Ideal Gas Law PV=nRT
– V=volume in liters
– n=moles of gas
– P=pressure in atm
– T=temperature in Kelvin's
– R is the molar gas constant
• For given gas R is constant and for given number of moles
of gas the equation can be solved to relate pressure,
temperature and volume between two different states

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 Basic Math
Gas Laws
• Examples:
– Container size of gas halved; temperature remains same
– Equation P1V1=P2V2

V2 = ½ V1
P1V1
P2 =
½ V1
P2 = 2 P1

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 Basic Math

Temperature conversion Fahrenheit and Celsius

• The equation relating the two is C = (F-32) * 5 / 9

• From F to C:
        - subtract 32
        - multiply by 5
        - divide by 9
From C to F:
        - multiple by 9
        - divide by 5
        - add 32

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 Basic Math
• Gearing
– Used to transmit power between shafts rotating usually at
different speeds
• Two main types
– Spur gears – the larger
– Pinion gears – the smaller

Pinion to Spur gear ratio:

# of teeth on spur gear / # of teeth on pinion gear
Ex: 150-tooth spur; 30-tooth pinion:
150/30 = 5 or 5 to 1; also expressed as a ratio, i.e. 5 : 1

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 Basic Measurement

Measuring Tools, Torque and Gearing

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 Basic Measurement

• The Micrometer
– Precision measuring instrument
– Handle with care
– Four types of Micrometers
• Outside
• Inside
• Depth
• Thread

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 Basic Measurement
• Most common: One inch, outside Micrometer

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 Basic Measurement
• Micrometer (Con’t)
– Used to measure
• Thickness
• Diameter
• Other items
– Storing a Micrometer
• Never tighten Anvil against Spindle, leave a small opening
• Store in a dry place, box, or pouch
• If dropped, check for accuracy with Gauge Block before using

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 Basic Measurement
• How to use and read a Micrometer
– Hold frame in palm of hand with little finger or
third finger inside the frame
– Tighten around object until ratchet clicks
– Micrometers with Vernier scale allow you to read
the fraction of the division on the barrel scale
– One revolution of micrometer is 0.025
– Gauge Block should be used to check calibration

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Basic Measurement

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Basic Measurement

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Basic Measurement

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Basic Measurement

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 Basic Measurement
• Depth Micrometer
– Used to measure
• Holes
• Grooves
• Recesses
– When using a Depth Micrometer:
• Make sure base has a flat, smooth surface to rest on
• Hold firmly in place to prevent lift-off and ensure an
accurate measurement

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 Basic Measurement
• How to use and read a Depth Micrometer
– Graduations on the barrel are numbered in the opposite
direction of those on an outside micrometer
– Pay attention to numbers you can’t see

4 tenths + 25 thousandths + 10 thousandths

= 0.435
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 Basic Measurement
• Calipers
– Digital
– Dial
– Vernier

• Easy to read
• Can be used to measure
• Outside
• Inside
• Depth

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 Basic Measurement
• Vernier Caliper:
– The main scale is divided in inches.
• Each inch is divided into 40 parts, like the sleeve on the
micrometer
• Each division is equal to 0.025 inch
– A movable jaw that matches the fixed jaw slides
along the main scale bar
• Contains 25 divisions that equal 24 divisions on the
main scale

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 Basic Measurement
• How to read a Vernier Caliper:
– Read the nearest number located on the main scale
(in inches) and add to that the number of
subdivisions.
• Make sure to read from the zero on the movable jaw
Vernier scale and not the jaw edge!
– Scan down the movable jaw Vernier scale and
select the number that matches up exactly with the
main scale
– Add this number to the numbers from the main
scale
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Basic Measurement

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 Basic Measurement

• Ball gauges (Small Hole gauge)

– Used to measure small holes up to ½ inch in
diameter
– Insert ball gauge into hole and tighten
– Remove ball gauge and use a micrometer to
determine size of hole by measuring 90 degrees to
separation (spilt) on the ball gauge
– Store with ball retracted (backed-off)

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 Basic Measurement

• Telescoping Gauges
– Used to measure inside cylinders, typically up to
six inches in diameter.
– Allow spring loaded “T” gauge to extend to inside
opening
– Lock shaft
– Measure with micrometer
– Store with ‘T” gauge extended.

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 Basic Measurement
• The steel rule
– Lengths vary – most common 6 in or 36 in
– Can be used as a straight edge
– Usually contains four scales, 1/32, 1/64, 1/10,
1/100.
– The fractional divisions of an inch are found by
dividing the inch into equal parts:
• Halves, quarters, eights, sixteenths, thirty- seconds and
sixty-fourths or
• Decimals of 100th of an inch

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Basic Measurement
The Combination Set

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 Basic Measurement
• Combination Set
– Can be used as a ordinary rule
• 16ths, 32nds scales
– Tri-square
• 90°, 45° angles, Bubble Level
– Protractor
• Precision angles
– Center head
• Used to find the center of an object
– Each head slides along the blade and can be locked in place

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
Drawings
• 3 types of working drawings
• Detail drawing
– Single part
• Assembly drawing
– Two or more parts assembled together
• Installation drawing
– All necessary information for a part or an assembly to be
installed on the vehicle/rocket/aircraft

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
Drawings
• Orthographic Projection, Six views

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
• Lines
Drawings

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
Drawings
• Lines

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
Drawings
• Title Block
• Name of the firm
• Name of the part
• The scale
• Name of the draftsmen, the checker and the person
approving the drawing
• The date
• Drawing number

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
Drawings
• Title Block

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
•
Drawings
Orthographic Projection, 3 views

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Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
Drawings

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
Drawings
• Tolerance
– When a given dimension on a print shows the allowable
variation, the plus (+) figure indicates the maximum and
the minus (–) figure indicates minimum allowable
variation. Also called the “the extreme permissible
dimensions of the hole or part.

– Example: Using .225 + .0025 - .005

– The hole could be as large as .2275
The hole could be as small as .2200

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 Blueprint Reading and
Interpreting Technical
Drawings
• Schematics diagrams do not indicate the
locations of individual components in the
vehicle or rocket, but do locate components
with respect to each other

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Blueprint Reading and
Schematics

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 Any Questions?

• Lets take the quiz!

• Remember this “Readiness Course” in
“Applied Mechanics” is a review. It is highly
recommended you review applicable chapters
in AC65-9A before testing (1, 2, 6 &12).

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 References

• Karr “Technology of Machine Tools”

• Navy Manual Tools and Their Uses
• AC 43.13-1B Acceptable Methods, Techniques, and Practices - Aircraft
Inspection and Repair
• AC65-9A Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics General Handbook
• AC 65-15A [Large AC] Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics Airframe
Handbook

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• Design Handbook
http://pergatory.mit.edu/2.007/Resources/inde
x.html

• Virtual Machine Shop

http://www.jjjtrain.com/vms/library.html

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