Organisational Change

Chapter 5

The Politics of
Change

1
 Objectives
To:
 explain the meaning of ‘organisational
politics’;
 distinguish between different sources of
power and ways of using power;
 define and discuss the link between power,
politics and conflict;
 identify different types of conflict and
suggest possible actions for conflict
resolution;
 discuss the relationship between power,
conflict and change and ways of managing
these.
2
 Introduction to Power &
Politics

Ever organisation, however formal it is on
the surface, has a ‘Shadow Side’.

This shadow side comprises political
process, that people use to try to get what
they want, regardless of, and sometimes
in conflict with, existing rules and formal
instructions.

Power has ‘dirty’ connotations.

However, politics is inevitable, especially
in the context of organisational change.

Power and politics are drawn on/used to
leverage organisational change.
3
 Definition of Power
Power entails:

The capacity of individuals to exert their
will over others.

Ability to make things happen.

Ability to overcome resistance in order to
achieve desired objectives or results.

Source: Robbins, S. (1993) Organizational Behavior, Hemel Hempsted, Prentice Hall.

4
 Definition of Politics
Politics:

Practical use of power in action

Includes activities that are not required as part
of one’s formal role

Includes activities that attempt to influence the
distribution of advantages and disadvantages
(e.g. through negotiation)

Two kinds of politics


Legitimate - normal everyday politics

Illegitimate - outside the ‘rules-of-the-game’

Source: Robbins, S. (1993) Organizational Behavior, Hemel Hempsted, Prentice Hall.

5
 The Reality of Politics
Politics exists because


Individuals and groups have different
values, goals and norms


Resources are limited


Most decisions require interpretation
of facts e.g. good performance

Source: Robbins, S. (1993) Organizational Behavior, Hemel Hempsted, Prentice Hall.

6
 Organisations and Models
of Political Rule

Autocracy - rule by emperor


Bureaucracy - rule of law


Technocracy - rule by expert


Co-determination - rule by combined
power blocs


Representative democracy - elected
government


Direct democracy - communal decision
making
7
 The Characteristics of Power

Power influences who gets what, when and how.
(Morgan, 1986, p.158).

Power is the potential or actual ability to influence
others in a desired direction. An individual, group or
other social unit has power if it controls information,
knowledge, or resources desired by another individual,
group, or social unit.
(Gordon, 1993, p.392).

Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the
behaviour of B, so that B does something he or she
would not otherwise do.
(Robbins, 1996, p.462).

POWER IMPLIES.
− potential.
− dependency relationship.
− that ‘B’ has some discretion over his/her behaviour.

8
 Power and Influence


Physical Force


Resource Exchange


Position Rules and Procedures


Expert Magnetism


Personal Persuasion


Negative Sabotage
According to Handy, C. (1993) Understanding Organizations. London, Penguin.

9
 Sources of Power (1)
Examples from Morgan, G. (1986) Images of
Organization, London, Sage p. 159


Formal authority


Control of scarce resources


Use of structure, rules, regulations


Control of decision processes

10
 Sources of Power (2)
Examples from Morgan, G. (1986) Images of
Organization, London, Sage p. 159


Control of knowledge & information


Control of boundaries


Control of technology


Interpersonal alliances, networks,
‘informal organisation’

11
 Sources of Power (3)
Examples from Morgan, G. (1986) Images of
Organization, London, Sage p. 159


Ability to cope with uncertainty


Symbolism and the management of
meaning


Gender and the management of gender
relations


The power that one already has

12
 Position Power and Control
of Resources

Weber (1947) said there were three types
of position power (formal authority).

tradition.

charisma.

rational-legal authority.

Resource power comes from the power to
distribute valued rewards or to withhold
or withdraw something which someone
else values.
=> ‘Push’ (threat of loss) strategies.
=> ‘Pull’ (incentive) strategies.

Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 1998. 13

 Common Symbols of a Manager’s Organisational
Power (Influence Upward and Outward)
The extent to which a manager can:


Intercede favourably on behalf of someone in trouble with
the organisation


Get a desirable placement for a talented subordinate


Get approval for expenditures beyond the budget


Get above-average salary increases for subordinates


Get items on the agenda at policy meetings


Get fast access to top decision-makers


Get early information about decisions and policy shifts

14
Invisible Power

Control of information
(horizontal and vertical)


Right of access
(right to enter formal and
informal networks)


Right to organise
(structure, design of jobs,
physical space & territory)

15
 ‘Non-decision-making’
Power

Influencing issues not directly
concerned with the decision itself
which which set the context for
decision making.

Covert power e.g. power to set the

agenda.
− inclusion/exclusion of items.
− order of items on the agenda.
− inclusion/exclusion of people.
16
 Expert Power


Expert power is in the eyes of the
beholder.


Someone who has expertise but is not
recognised buy others has no expert
power.


It’s also about being perceived to have
relatively more expertise than others.

17
 Symbolic Power

A symbol is a representation of deeper,
implicit meaning. Symbols include
routines, rituals, signs.


Symbolic power = power to manipulate
and use symbols to create.
− organisational environments.
− others’ beliefs and understandings.

to suit own purposes.

18
 Symbolic Power Examples

Place at the meeting table - who sits
next to the President.

‘Theatrical’ performance, impression
management.

Expensive office furnishings.

Expense accounts.

Personal style, demeanour, elegance,
looks.

Use of ‘in’ jargon, language.

19
 Powerlessness of
Demographic Groups
Groups who are often powerless
because of how organisational
factors treat them:
− Women
− Ethnic minority groups
− Disabled people
− Unemployed people

20
 Manifestations of
Demographic
Powerlessness

Exclusion from posts with strategic
and financial decision responsibilities

Junior positions

Glass ceiling

21
 Sources of Demographic
Powerlessness


Unfair discrimination

Dominant culture (e.g. long hours,
aggressive styles)

Family responsibilities

Passivity, deference, lack of
assertiveness

22
 Women and
In routine, low
profit jobs Powerlessness Tendency to
“hug” power to
themselves, be
authoritarian, not
Few favours to
delegate
trade

In staff rather
than line jobs
Can’t develop
own team
Over protected
through pushing
because they are
“bright”
women
subordinates
Supervising
“stuck”
subordinates
“Safe” job Exclusion from
male cliques,
drinking and
eating groups Senior managers
witholding support,
Not enough rope
allowing women to be
to prove
bypassed
themselves

Based on discussion in Kanter, R.M. (1979) ‘Power failure in management circuits’ Harvard Business Review, July-August, pp. 65-
75.

23
 Typical Positions of
Powerless

First-line supervisors

Staff professionals
− limited resources
− tend to become ‘turf-minded’

protect their patch

24
 Front-line Supervisors &
Powerlessness
Emphasis on what Enforcement of
little authority they rules, authoritarian
have control

Little opportunity
of promotion to
Seen by subordinates as
higher position
having little power with
higher management

Forced to administer
programmes which Feelings of
they have little hand in POWERLESSNESS
shaping

Resistance of
subordinates
Lack of resources to
influence/reward others

25
 Sources of Power in a
These include
Job

Communication resources

Physically central location

Networking opportunities

Contact with top management

Subordinates’ prospects

Authority in decision making

Meaningful tasks

Participation in key forums & meetings

26
 2 Views About Power &
Conflict (1)
1. Conflict as dysfunctional to
organisational life and
performance
=> unitary view of
organisational life
2. Conflict as familiar and endemic
to organisational life and
performance
=> pluralist view of
organisational life

The unitary view tends to fail
27
 2 Views about Power &
Conflict (2)
Unitary View Pluralist View

Common Particular &

interests & goals different interests
& goals
Conflict is bad, Conflict is normal,
and due to often positive
deviancy
Neglects the role Sees power as a
power prime variable
28
An Exponent of the Unitary
View of Conflict - Regina Ip
Lau Suk-yee

29
 A 3rd View about Power &
Conflict

Some critics hold to a third, Marxist, view
of conflict, which is that conflicts exist
because of the capitalist system of
production and that conflict will be
eradicated only when capitalist structures
have been demolished, and been replaced
with a system of common ownership.

However, the official Chinese Government
position on Hong Kong actually reflects
the Unitary View, as expressed by
Beijing's top representative to the
territory, Gao Siren: “Hong Kong is a city
of business, not of politics”.
30
 What Is Organisational
1. Opposition Conflict?
2. Perceived incongruency or
obstruction
3. Interaction giving rise to
disagreement or tension

31
 Layers in Organisational
Conflict
Misunderstandings

Interpersonal differences (personality clashes)

Differing interests (e.g.

resource battles) - these
are typically hidden

Differing beliefs (e.g. about how to

increase profits)

Differing values (e.g. about

what is right or wrong)

32
Sources of Conflict Between
Groups
These include

Interdependence

Different ways of organising internally

Rules that are wither too loose or too
tight

Scarce resources

Cultural differences

Change in the outside environment

33
 Conflict Handling Styles
Assertive

Competing Collaborating
Assertiveness

Compromising
Unassertive

Avoiding
Accommodating

Unco-operative Co-operative
Co-operativeness
34
 1. Collaborating

Combining assertiveness and co-
operativeness

Trying to resolve conflict through
problem-solving

It works when there is enough trust
and openness to share information so
that the parties can find a mutually
beneficial solution

35
 2. Avoiding

Smoothing over or avoiding conflict

Appropriate to use when:
(a.) the problem is trivial
(b) used as a temporary tactic to cool down
heated disputes

In the short-term it is OK for handling
managing conflict, but it creates
frustration in long-term

36
 3. Competing

Trying to win the conflict at the other’s
expense (a strong win/lose orientation)

Appropriate to use when:
(a) you are correct
(b) a quick solution is required
(c) other party would take advantage of co-
operation

37
 4. Accommodating

Giving in to the other side’s wishes,
with little attention to one’s own
interests

Appropriate to use when:
(a) you are wrong
(b) other party has substantially more
power
(c) the issue is less important to you
than to the other party

Problem: it may give the other side
unrealistically high expectations
− if so, it increases future conflict

38
 5. Compromising

Reaching a middle ground
– being willing to give up something in
return for something else

Appropriate to use when:
(a) the parties have equal power
(b) there is time pressure to settle
differences

Usually this leads to an
unsatisfactory resolution for both
parties

39
 Two Faces of Power

Positive power - oriented to initiation,
influencing, leading, empowering
others.
− Leads to constructive controversy.


Negative power - oriented to
dominance, control of others.
− Leads to destructive forms of conflict.

40
 Problems Posed by
Change
Even small scale change can pose
problems associated with the
following issues:

1. Resistance to change
2. Organisational Control
3. Power struggle

41
 Politics, Power, Conflict and
Change
Confusion as to
Change means of
situation organisational
control
Challenge to
values and/or
viewpoints

Political
action

Conflict

Power balance
upset
Feeling of
uncertainty and
loss of autonomy
Resistance

42
 Dealing With Conflict

Encourage openness

Model appropriate responses

Provide summaries and restatements of the position

Bring in people who are not directly involved

Encourage people to take time to think and reassess

Use the strengths of the group

Focus on shared goals

Use directions and interests to develop areas of new gain

Try to build objectivity into the process

Adopt an enquiring approach to managing

Based on Furze, D. & Gale, C. (1996) Interpreting Management, Exploring Change and Complexity, Thompson International Press,
pp. 312-317.

43
 4 Action Steps for Shaping
Change
1. Ensure or develop the support
of key power groups
2. Use leader behaviour to
generate energy in support of
the change (see previous slide)
3. Use symbols and language to
create energy
4. Build in stability (anchors)
Source: Nadler, D.A. (1988) ‘Concepts for the management of organizational change’, in Tushman, M.L and Moore, W.L. (eds) Readings in
the Management of Innovation (7th edn), New York, Ballinger Publishing Company, pp. 718-32.

44
 Assessing power
{PRIVATE }Indicators of power to help or hinder
I n d i v i d u aI ln d i v i d u a Il n/ d i v i d u a l /
change / g r o u p* A g r o u p* B g r o u p* C

Position
1 Status in hierarchy/formal authority
2 Power to change organisational structure, rules, and regulations
3 Control of strategic decision processes
4 Control of operational decision processes

Resources
5 Control of scarce resources
6 Control of budgets
7 Control of technology
8 Ability to reward or punish staff

Personal characteristics
9 Involvement in interpersonal alliances and networks, with links to the
informal organisation
10 Able to exert 'charismatic' leadership to get others to follow
11 Able to cope with uncertainty

Knowledge and expertise

11 Information specific to the change situation
12 Skills specific to the change situation
13 Knowledge and expertise unique to situation concerned

Symbols
13 Quality of accommodation
14 Use of expenses budget
15 Membership of high level decision-making committees
16 Receipt of company 'perks'
17 Unchallenged right to deal with those outside the organisation
18 Access to the 'ear' of top management
19

• Indicate, against each indicator, the degree of power for each individual or
group, according to whether it is high(H), medium(M) or low(L).
45
 Dealing With Potential
Resistance
1. Carry out a ‘power audit’ (see previous
slide) of all stakeholder groups or
individuals.
2. For each stakeholder, compare their
power to bock change with their likely
motivation to block the change.
3. Treat each stakeholder group according
to the extent of their power and
motivation to block change (see the
following slide).
4. Be sensitive to cultural issues.

46
Power and Motivation to Block Change

H ighA B
Potential problemDsefinite problem s
K EEP SATISFIED A TTEM PT TO
C O LLA B O R ATE
Pow er to C D
block changeFew problem s Potential problem s
D O N O TH IN G K EEP IN FO RM ED
Low
Low M otivationto block change H igh

47
 Conclusions

Organisational change, even if small-scale,
involves changing power balances.

Change agents and change managers are
well advised to do a careful analysis of
each stakeholder group’s relative power to
block change, and relative motivation to
block change.

Each stakeholder is likely to fight and
manoeuvre (covertly) to get the best ‘deal’
for themselves.

48