Course : CIVL6030 – Environmental Engineering

Effective Period : February 2018

Konsep Ekologi dan Sumber

Daya Alam
Session 2
 Acknowledgement

These slides have been adapted from:

Davis, Mackenzie L. and Masten, Susan J. (2009).

Principles of Environmental Engineering and
Science. McGraw-Hill.

Chapter 5 and Chapter 8

 Learning Objectives
• Jelaskan konsep ekologis dan sumber daya alam
 Definitions
• Ekosistem: Daerah yang ditentukan di mana masyarakat hidup
dengan interaksi yang terjadi di antara organisme antara
masyarakat dan lingkungan fisik yang tidak hidup.
• Ekosistem dibentuk oleh interaksi antara semua makhluk hidup
dan benda mati
• Bagaimana kehidupan dan hal-hal yang tidak hidup berinteraksi
dalam suatu lingkungan?
 What is an ecosystem?
• Sistem = secara teratur berinteraksi dan
komponen yang saling bergantung
membentuk kesatuan yang utuh
• Ekosistem = sistem ekologi;
= komunitas dan lingkungan fisiknya
diperlakukan bersama sebagai sistem
fungsional.
 Pengaruh Manusia pada Ekosistem

• Kami memiliki tanggung jawab untuk melindungi ekosistem

dan kehidupan yang ada di dalamnya
• Ekosistem berubah secara alami, tetapi aktivitas manusia
dapat mempercepat proses alam dengan beberapa kali lipat
(dalam hal waktu)
• Spesies dapat terancam oleh:
– Aktivitas manusia kepunahan global / lokall
– Rilis bahan kimia beracun, mis. DDT
– Pengenalan spesies non eksotis (eksotis) ke dalam
ekosistem
– Perburuan yang berlebihan ilegal atau legal
 Ecosystem Services
• Ekonomi manusia tergantung pada layanan yang
dilakukan secara gratis oleh ekosistem.
• Layanan ekosistem yang disediakan setiap tahun
bernilai banyak triliunan dolar.
• Pembangunan ekonomi yang menghancurkan habitat
dan merusak layanan dapat menciptakan biaya bagi
umat manusia dalam jangka panjang yang mungkin
sangat melebihi manfaat ekonomi jangka pendek dari
pembangunan.
• Biaya-biaya ini umumnya tersembunyi dari akuntansi
ekonomi tradisional, tetapi tetap nyata dan biasanya
ditanggung oleh masyarakat luas.

• http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/pdf/issue2.pdf
 Ekosistem :
Karakteristik Fundamental
• Struktur:
– Hidup (biotik)
– Nonliving (abiotic)
• Proses:
– Aliran energi
– Materi bersepeda (bahan kimia)
• Perubahan:
– Dinamis (tidak statis)
– Suksesi, dll.
 Abiotic components:

• ABIOTIC components:
• Solar energy provides practically all the energy for
ecosystems.
• Inorganic substances, e.g., sulfur, boron, tend to
cycle through ecosystems.
• Organic compounds, such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and other complex
molecules, form a link between biotic and abiotic
components of the system.
 BIOTIC components

• The biotic components of an ecosystem can be

classified according to their mode of energy
acquisition.
• In this type of classification, there are:
• Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
• Organisms that produce their own food from an
energy source, such as the sun, and inorganic
compounds.
• Organisms that consume other organisms as a
food source.
Trophic level: All the organisms that are
the same number of food-chain steps
from the primary source of energy
 Trophic Levels
• A trophic level is the position occupied by an organism in a
food chain.
• Trophic levels can be analyzed on an energy pyramid.
• Producers are found at the base of the pyramid and
compromise the first trophic level.
• Primary consumers make up the second trophic level.
• Secondary consumers make up the third trophic level.
• Finally tertiary consumers make up the top trophic level.
 Trophic Levels Found on an
Energy Pyramid
• The greatest amount of energy is found at the
base of the pyramid.
• The least amount of energy is found at top of the
pyramid.

Source: corpuschristiisd.org/user_files/91702/Ecosystem.ppt
 Trophic Structure Reminder
• Eltonian pyramids
• Number of individuals per species
• Is this pyramid stable?
 Trophic Structure Reminder
• What if we transformed each species into
biomass instead of absolute numbers?
 Biomass

• Energy is sometimes considered in terms of

biomass, the mass of all the organisms and
organic material in an area.
• There is more biomass at the trophic level
of producers and fewer at the trophic level
of tertiary consumers. (There are more
plants on Earth than there are animals.)
• Bio=life Mass=weight
• Bio + Mass = Weight of living things
within an ecosystem.
 Trophic Structure Reminder
• Express trophic structure as energy transfer
• Energy pyramids can never be inverted
• Is there room for anyone else
• at the top of this food chain?
 Energy and Mass Flow
• Ecosystems would not be possible were it not for the flow of
energy into them
• Example:
A deer eats 25 kg of herbaceous material per day. The herbaceous
matter is approximately 20% dry matter (DM) and has an energy
content of 10 MJ . (kg DM)^-1. Of the total energy ingested per day,
25% is excreted as undigested material. Of the 75% that is digested,
80% is lost to metabolic waste products and heat. The remaining
20% is converted to body tissue.
How many megajoules are converted to body tissue on a daily basis?
Calculate the percentage of energy consumed that is converted to
body tissue.
• Solution:
The dry matter content of the herbaceous material is calculated as:
(25 kg herbaceous material.day^-1) x (0.20 kg dry matter.(kg
material)^-1) = 5.0 kg DM.day^-1
 Food Chains
• The producers, consumers, and decomposers of each
ecosystem make up a food chain.
• There are many food chains in an ecosystem.
• Food chains show where energy is transferred and not who
eats who.
Example of a Food Chain
 Food Webs
All the food chains in an area make up the food web of the area.
 Nutrient Cycles
• Carbon Cycle
• Nitrogen Cycle
• Phosphorus Cycle
• Sulfur Cycle
 Carbon Cycles
• Carbon is found in all living organisms, e.g.:
– in the atmosphere (predominately as carbon dioxide and
bicarbonate)
– In soil hummus
– In fossil fuels
– In rock and soils (predominately as carbonate minerals in
limestone or dolomite or in shales)
• 85% of world’s carbon is found in the oceans
• Photosythesis is the major driving force for the carbon cycle
 Carbon Cycles

Source: Mackenzie L. Davis, Susan J. Masten. (2009). Principles of environmental engineering and science. 02. McGraw Hill. Boston. ISBN: 978-
 Nitrogen Cycles
• Nitrogen
  in lakes is usually in the form of Nitrate ( and comes
from external sources by way of inflowing streams or
groundwater.
• When taken up by algae and other phytoplankton, the
nitrogen is chemically reduced to amino compounds () and
incorporated into organic compounds.
• When dead algae undergo decomposition, the organic
nitrogen is released to the water as ammonia (NH3). At
normal pH values, this ammonia occurs in the form of
ammonium (). The ammonia released from the organic
compounds, plus that from other sources such as industrial
wastes and agricultural runoff (e.g. fertilizers and manure) is
oxidized to nitrate () by a special group of nitrifying bacteria
in a two-step process called nitrification:
 Nitrogen Cycles

Source: Mackenzie L. Davis, Susan J. Masten. (2009). Principles of environmental engineering and science. 02. McGraw Hill. Boston. ISBN: 978-
 Nitrogen Cycles
 
•• Nitrogen cycles from nitrate to organic nitrogen, to ammonia, and back to
nitrate as long as the water remains aerobic.
• Under anoxic conditions, for example, in anaerobic sediments, when algal
decomposition has depleted the oxygen supply, nitrate is reduced by bacteria
to nitrogen gas (N2) and lost from the system in a process called
denitrification.
• Denitrification reduces the average time nitrogen remains in the lake and can
result in the formation of N 2O (nitrous oxide). The denitrification reaction is:

• Human influences on the nitrogen cycle have resulted from the manufacture
and use of industrial fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, and large-scale
production of nitrogen-fixing crops.
• Consequently, the release of biologically usable nitrogen from soil and organic
matter has increased. Nitrous oxide releases from industrial sources and the
combustion of fossil fuels have also increased.
• The effects of nitrogen releases are significant and range from acid rain and
lake acidification to the corrosion of metals and deterioration of building
materials.
 Phosphorus Cycles
• Phosphorus in unpolluted waters is imported through dust
in precipitation or via the weathering of rock
• Phosphorus is normally present in watersheds in extremely
small amounts, usually existing dissolved as
– inorganic orthophosphate
– suspended as organic colloids
– Adsorbed onto particulate organic and inorganic
sediment
– Contained in organic water
• In polluted waters, the major source of phosphorus is from
human activities
 Phosphorus Cycles

Source: Mackenzie L. Davis, Susan J. Masten. (2009). Principles of environmental engineering and science. 02. McGraw Hill. Boston. ISBN: 978-
 Sulfur Cycles
• As with the nitrogen cycle, microorganisms play an important
role in the cycling of sulfur.
• Bacteria are involved in the oxidation of pyrite-containing
minerals, releasing large quantities of sulfate.
• In anaerobic environments, sulfate-reducing bacteria reduce
sulfate to release hydrogen sulfide.
• In marine waters, the biological production of
dimethylsulfide may occur.
 Sulfur Cycles

Source: Mackenzie L. Davis, Susan J. Masten. (2009). Principles of environmental engineering and science. 02. McGraw Hill. Boston. ISBN: 978-
Natural Resources
 Natural Resources
• Renewable resources
• Non-renewable resources
 Energy Resources
• Human and animal labor (300 years ago)
• Water power
• Wind
• Wood
• Other burnable organic matter, such as agricultural waste,
dung, and peat (biomass)
 Coal Formation
• Started from decaying plant material or sediment (peat)
• As peat becomes buried under an increasingly thicker layer
of dead plant matter and sediment, it is compressed and its
temperature rises
• Over time, peat becomes lignite (the poorest quality coal)
• With increased pressure and heat exerted over a long
period, the lignite evolves into bituminous (soft coal) and
then anthracite (hard coal). Typical anthracite coal is about
95% carbon and is the highest quality coal.
 Petroleum Formation
• Petroleum includes gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbon compounds
occurring naturally in the earth
• The formation process is similar to the coal formation, except the source of
petroleum is mostly aquatic organisms.
• Requirements must be fulfilled for a petroleum deposit of economic
significance to occur (Coates, 1981):
– An original environmental setting that favors the rapid accumulation of
organic-rich deposits, typically, a marine lagoon that gradually subsides
– An appropriate source bed that retains the oil during the sedimentation
cycle (fine-grained sediments)
– A proper rock reservoir that is sufficiently permeable that the petroleum
is easily released when pumped – usually sandstone or limestone
– A geologic structure that serves as a “trap” to prevent the complete
disappearance of the petroleum from the reservoir rock.
– Crustal stability after formation of the petroleum and collection in the
trap. Additional earth deformation after formation of the petroleum; the
folding and faulting may release it to formations where it is too
disseminated to recover profitably
Petroleum Formation
 Nuclear Energy
• Fission and fusion are the two potential reactions that may be used
to generate nuclear energy.
• Fission = a neutron penetrates the nucleus of a fissionable atom (a
radioactive isotope of uranium or plutonium) and splits it into
daughter products while releasing energy  all commercially
operating nuclear reactors are based on this
• Fusion = isotopes of a light element such as hydrogen are fused
together to form a heavier element such as helium. In this process
energy is released.
• There are pros and cons to this method.
• Pros:
– Abundant power
– No CO2 emissions
– Minimal impact on the landscape
• Cons:
– When accident occur, it could be catastrophic, e.g. Chernobyl
 Environmental Impacts
• Waste from resource recovery
– Strip mining  creates large quantities of waste in the form of overburden
– Acid mine drainage  result from rain water leaching through abandoned
mines, spoil, and tailings
• Waste in energy production
– Burning of fossil fuels releases air pollutants, such as sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, and particulates
– Nuclear energy poses an unresolved solid waste disposal problem due to
the usage of radioactive
• Terrain effects
– Underground mines could cause land subsidence, including sudden
collapses of the shafts that destroy homes, roads, and utilities
• Sustainable energy sources
– Hydropower
– Biomass / biofuels
– Geothermal
– Solar energy