Prototyping

 An iteration approach to the systems

development process. During each iteration,
requirement of alternative solution to the
problems are identified and analyzed.
 It is a popular technique in systems
development. Each generation of prototype
is a refinement of the previous generation
based on user feedback.
Alternative Methodologies:
Rapid Prototyping
Consists of Building experimental system
rapidly and inexpensively for end user to
evaluate ;

 Prototype: Preliminary working version

of information system for demonstration,
evaluation purposes
Steps in prototyping
 Identify the users basic requirements
 Develop an initial prototype
 Use the prototype
 Revise and enhance the prototype
 Problems in prototyping
– Omission of basic requirements.
– Lack of documentation, testing.
– Prototyping tools may not be capable of
developing complex systems.
– Users see prototype and expect to be able to
use it.
Prototyping Guidelines
 Alternative Methodologies:
End-User Development
 End-users develop system with little help or no help
from technical specialists

– Appropriate mainly for smaller applications

– Users have control/autonomy over system

Make use of fourth Generation languages like Query Language,

Report generator, application generator etc
Alternative Methodologies:
End-User Development
 Management Benefits
– Improved requirements determination
– Development controlled by users
– Reduced application backlog
 Management Problems
– Insufficient review/analysis
– Lack of standards and controls
– Proliferation of “private” information systems and
data
Alternative Methodology:
Acquiring Software Packages
 Commercial Off the
Shelf (COTS)
Packages
– Set of prewritten
application software
programs that are
commercially available
– Modification of
software package to
meet organization’s
needs may be required
Figure 14.12 – Laudon & Laudon 2006
Alternative Methodology:
Outsourcing

The purchase of an
externally produced good or
service that was previously
produced internally
Outsourcing
 Advantages
– Economy
– Predictability
– Frees up human resources
 Disadvantages
– Loss of control
– Vulnerability of strategic information
– Dependency
 Comparison of Systems Development Approaches
Approach Features Advantages Disadvantages
Systems Lifecycle Sequential step-by-step Necessary for large Slow and expensive
(Waterfall) process complex systems Discourages changes
Written specification and projects Massive paperwork to manage
and approvals
Limited role of users
Prototyping Requirements specified Rapid and inexpensive Inappropriate for large, complex
dynamically with Useful when systems
experimental system requirements are Can gloss over steps in analysis,
Rapid, informal, and uncertain or when end- documentation, and testing
iterative process user interface is
User interacts with important
prototype Promotes user
participation

End-user Systems created by end Users control systems- Can lead to proliferation of
Development users using fourth- building uncontrolled information
generation software Saves development time systems
tools and cost Systems do not always meet
Rapid and informal Reduces application quality assurance standards
Minimal role of IT dept backlog
 Comparison of Systems Development Approaches
Approach Features Advantages Disadvantages
Application Commercial software Design, programming,
Software Package eliminates need for installation, and
internally developed maintenance work reduced
software programs Can save time and cost
when developing common
business applications
Reduces need for internal
information systems
resources
Outsourcing Systems built and Can reduce or control costs
sometimes operated by Can produce systems when
external vendors internal resources not
available or technically
deficient
May not meet
organization’s unique
requirements
May not perform many
business function well
Extensive customization
raises development
costs
Loss of control over the
information systems
function
Dependence on the
technical direction and
prosperity of external
vendors