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‡ Basic Performance Characteristics
‡ Detector Limitations
‡ Design and Performance Characteristics of
Parallel-Hole Collimators
‡ Performance Characteristics of Converging,
Diverging, and Pinhole Collimators
‡ Measurements of Gamma Camera
Performance.
     
‡ Intrinsic spatial resolution refers to the limit of spatial
resolution achievable by the detector and the electronics
‡ Intrinsic spatial resolution is limited primarily by two
factors: multiple scattering and statistical fluctuation in the
distribution of light photons (the later is the main factor).
‡ Intrinsic resolution depends on detector crystal thickness
and Ȗ ray energy. A thinner crystal is used for Anger
camera to achieve better spatial resolution.
‡ Larger number of PM tubes and improvement of light
collection efficiency result in better resolution.
      
 
    

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‡ The crystal thickness of NaI(Tl) in Anger
camera is smaller (6-12mm) than that of a
well counter (2-5cm).
‡ Anger camera is designed for optimal
detection of Ȗ ray energies of 100-200keV.
    
  !

 
‡ Pulse pile-up is the problem at high count
rate and it results in count loss and image
distortion.
‡ Count loss depends on the whole energy
spectrum but the apparent dead-time
depends on the window fraction. Scatter
causes narrower of the window fraction
therefore longer dead-time.
  !

 
‡ Pulse pile-up causes
image distortion. Two
scattered event may be
added to form a photo-
peak which produces a
location between the
two scattered events.
  !

 
‡ The general effect
of the pulse pile-
up is to cause a
loss of image
contrast and
details
  !

 
‡ Pulse pile-up rejection circuit can be used to
improve the pulse pile-up but it will reduce the
maximum achievable count rate
‡ Deadtime can be improved by shortening the
effective charge integration time for the output
signal from the PM tube but it will reduce the
amount of light collected by the PM tube,
therefore, degrade the intrinsic resolution.
  !

 
‡ Count rate
performance
should be one
of the
important
factors for
Anger cameras
  "
 
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‡ Non-linearity refers to that a straight line object appear as
curved line image
‡ Non-linearity occurs when the X and Y positional signals
do not change linearly with the displacement distance.
‡ ³Pincushion´ distortion is an inward ³bowing´ image and
³Barrel´ distortion is an outward ³bowing´ image
‡ A PM tube may have high light collection efficiency in the
centre which may result in a ³pincushion´ in the centre and
³barrel´ between PM tubes. This kind of images could
results in a ³wavy´ line pattern.
#   $ 
  # "% 
‡ Non-Uniformity refers to the intensity variation from a
uniform flood source
‡ The causes could be the non-uniform detection efficiency
(small differences in pulse height spectrum) and non-
linearity of PM tubes (more server) or instrument
malfunctions.
‡ ³Edge packing´ refers to the bright ring around the edge of
the image. It is caused by the internal light reflection of the
detector crystal. ³Edge packing´ is usually masked and the
useful field of view is smaller than the actual detector size
# "% 
 
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‡ Cosmetic approach:
± Adjust individual PM tube gains (compensate for the detection
efficiency difference)
± ³Correction factors´ matrix. Test image is normalised and the
correction factor for each matrix element is used to add or subtract
from the image.
‡ Advanced approach:
± A set of microprocessors are used to store correction matrices for
regional differences in pulse height spectra and for position
distortion.
± Images are corrected on event by event basis (on fly).
# " 
 
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     !  

  

‡ Basic limitations in collimator performance


‡ Septal thickness
‡ Geometry of collimator holes
‡ System resolution
á  
  
  
‡ Collimator is a limiting factor in camera system
performance.
‡ Collimator resolution refers to the sharpness or
details of the Ȗ ray image projected onto the
detector --- worse than the intrinsic resolution.
‡ Collimator efficiency refers to the fraction of Ȗ
rays that pass through it -- a few percent or less.
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‡ Septal thickness is designed to prevent Ȗ
rays from penetrating from one hole to
another (allow less than 5% to pass
through).
‡ Septal thickness should be as small as
possible in order to gain maximum
efficiency
‡ High atomic number and density material
should be used (lead is the choice)
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‡ The required thickness
t=2dw/(l-w) where
(t/w)=(2d+t)/l if ș is
small
‡ If 5% penetration is
allowed,
t>[6d/ȝ]/[l-(3/ ȝ)]
because e-ȝw<0.05
therefore ȝw>3
  

‡ The septal thickness depends on the Ȗ ray energies to be
used because ȝ depends on the Ȗ ray energy.
‡ Energy ranges in nuclear medicine are often classified as:
low energy <150keV; medium energy <400keV and high
energy <1Mev.
‡ Low energy collimators are generally fragile because they
are only a few tenth of mm.
‡ Low energy collimators are used whenever possible to
obtain maximum collimator efficiency (³foggy´
background may be superimposed on the image for high
energy).
   
  !  
‡ The performance of a collimator is affected by its
shape, length and diameter (round or hexagonal
are the best)
‡ Spatial resolution and detection efficiency are the
two important performance parameters
‡ Collimator spatial resolution is defined as the
FWHM of the radiation profile from a point or
line source of radiation projected by the collimator
onto the detector.

     
‡ A parallel holes
collimator resolution
is given by
Rc=[d(le+b)]/le where
le =l-2ȝ-1 is the
effective collimator
length (taking into
account of the Ȗ ray
penetration)

      (
‡ Spatial resolution of a
parallel collimator
increases (worse) as
the distance between
the collimator and the
source increased

   
‡ The detection efficiency is given by
g=K2(d/le)2[d2/(d+t)2]
where K is a constant that depends on the
holes shape. The first part is the geometric
factor (solid angle subtended by a
collimator hole) and the second part is the
fraction that is not covered by the septa (the
area ratio of the holes and total detector).

   
‡ Collimator
efficiency for a
source in air is
independent of
source-to-
collimator
distance b.

   
‡ Invariance of
collimator
efficiency with
source to collimator
distance applies to
point sources, line
sources and uniform
sheet source in air
with parallel hole
collimators.
   ' 
‡ The relationship between the resolution and
efficiency is gœRc2
‡ For a given septal thickness, collimator
resolution is improved only at the expense
of decreased collimator efficiency and vice
versa.
    
‡ System resolution depends on a number of factors
such as, scattering, septal penetration, intrinsic
resolution and collimator resolution with the
collimator and intrinsic resolutions are the main
factors.
‡ System resolution (consider intrinsic and
collimator only) can be expressed as Rs2=Ri2+Rc2
‡ System resolution is determined primarily by
collimator resolution.
   
   

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‡ Resolution always is best with the source as close as
possible to the collimator
‡ For point source in air, the efficiency increases as the
source to collimator distance increase with converging
collimator (maximum at focus point) and decreases for
diverging and pinhole collimators. No change for flood
source as long as the source cover the entire detector.
‡ Diverging, converging and pinhole collimators may be
useful for the change of field of view but the image
distortion caused by the magnification with depth may be a
problem.
    
 
  
‡ Intrinsic Resolution
‡ System Resolution
‡ Spatial Linearity
‡ Uniformity
‡ Counting Rate Performance
‡ Energy Resolution
‡ System Sensitivity

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