Chapte

r 12 &
13
Six-Sigma Quality &
Statistical Quality
Control
F. Robert Jacobs & Richard B. Chase, Mc.Graw Hill 15th ed.
HELLO!
We are Group 6
• Vanny Erliana (042024353038)
• Hariyatin (042024353026)
• Rezka Putri H. (042024353046)
• Stefanus Ardian S. (042024353058)

2
Chapter 12

SIX SIGMA
QUALITY
 “
mengatur keseluruhan organisasi dalam
semua dimensi produk dan layanan yang

Total Quality penting bagi pelanggan

Dua tujuan operasional yang

Management fundamental :
1. Desain produk atau layanan yang cermat

(TQM) 2. Memastikan bahwa sistem organisasi

dapat secara konsisten menghasilkan
desain
TQM menjadi perhatian
nasional di Amerika pada 1980-
an

sebagai tanggapan atas

keunggulan kualitas mobil Jepang
dan barang-barang tahan lama
lainnya, seperti AC.
“
Untuk mencapai
kualitas yang luar biasa
membutuhkan :

• kepemimpinan yang berkualitas

dari manajemen senior
• fokus pelanggan
• keterlibatan seluruh karyawan
• perbaikan berkelanjutan
berdasarkan analisis proses yang
ketat

Hal ini diterapkan dalam

pendekatan terbaru untuk
TQM — Six Sigma
 Apa itu Six Sigma

Sigma adalah huruf Yunani yang mewakili satuan statistika pengukuran yang
menentukan standar deviasi suatu populasi. Ini mengukur variabilitas atau
penyebaran data.

Sigma juga digunakan sebagai ukuran kualitas. Tingkat kualitas sigma

menunjukkan berapa banyak data yang masuk dalam persyaratan pelanggan.

Tingkat kualitas sigma yang lebih tinggi berarti lebih banyak output proses,
produk dan layanan memenuhi persyaratan pelanggan, lebih sedikit cacat
(defect). .

05/20/2021 7
 Apa itu Six Sigma (lanjutan)

Six Sigma dikembangkan oleh Motorola pada tahun 1980an dan selanjutnya
ditingkatkan oleh General Electric (GE) dan Caterpillar (CAT)

Pada dasarnya six sigma dibangun berdasarkan gagasan pemecahan masalah

berbasis data yang meningkatkan kemampuan proses untuk memenuhi
permintaan pelanggan.

Mengurangi variasi proses, menggunakan analisa statistik, membuat proses

terkendali.

Tingkat kualitas 6 sigma adalah menunjukkan kinerja yang hampir sempurna

05/20/2021 8
 Ukuran Dalam Six Sigma
Yield (Probabilitas tanpa DPMO (Defect per
cacat) million opportunity) Sigma

30,9% 690.000 11

69,2 308.000 2

93,35 66.800 3

99,4%. 6.210 4

99,98% 320. 5

99,9997% 3,4 6

05/20/2021 9
 “
1 sigma mewakili 30,9% produk tanpa cacat.
Tujuannya adalah menuju six sigma, yaitu 99,9997% produk
tanpa cacat. Artinya dengan 1 juta produk hanya diperkenankan
produk cacat sebanyak 3,4 produk.
Jadi, six sigma adalah suatu manajemen
perbaikan (improvement) untuk mencapai
tingkat mutu 3,4 defect per sejuta peluang.
05/20/2021 10
 Defect per Million Opportunities (DPMO)

1. Unit : the item produced or being serviced

2. Defect : any item or event that does not meet the customer’s requirements
3. Opportunity : A chance for a defect to occur

Number of defecs
DPMO = x 1.000.000
Number ofopportunities for error per unit x Number of units

05/20/2021 11
Example :

05/20/2021 12
Six Sigma Methodology
DEFINE identify customers and their priorities
DEFINE

determine how to measure

determine how to maintain the process and how it is
MEASURE
MEASURE
the improvements CONTROL
CONTROL performing
DMAIC
Methodology

identify means to remove the causes IMPROVE

IMPROVE ANALYZE
ANALYZE determine the most likely causes of defects
of defects

05/20/2021 13
 Six Sigma Analytical Tools
Flowchart
a diagram of the sequence of
operations
Process control
chart
Used to assure that Run chart
processes are in depict trends in data
statistical control over time

Opportunity flow Pareto chart

diagram Help to break down a
Used to separate problem into the relative
value-added from contributions of its
non-value-added components

Cause-and-effect diagram Checksheet

Show relationships between Basic form to
causes and problems standardize data
05/20/2021 collection 14
Flowchart

There are many types of flowcharts. This one

depicts the process steps as part of a SIPOC
(supplier, input, process, output, customer)
analysis. SIPOC is essentially a formalized
input-output model, used in the define stage
of a project.

12-15
 Flowchart

Arti Simbol Contoh

12-16
Run Chart

They depict trends in data over time, and

thereby help in understanding the
magnitude of a problem at the define
stage. 

12-17
Pareto Chart
“Diagram yang terdiri dari grafik balok dan grafik garis,
untuk menentukan prioritas masalah / masalah terbesar
dari sejumlah permasalahan yang ada (vital few trivial
many).”

These charts help to break down a problem into the

relative contributions of its components. They are based
on the common empirical finding that a large percentage
of problems are due to a small percentage of causes. In
the example, 80 percent of customer complaints are due
to late deliveries, which are 20 percent of the causes
listed.

12-18
Checksheet

“Lembar sistematis yang berisi daftar hal-hal yang

perlukan untuk tujuan pengumpulan dan evaluasi
data.”

Kapan?
 Ketika data dapat diamati dan dikumpulkan
berulang kali oleh orang yang sama atau di
lokasi yang sama.
 Ketika mengumpulkan data mengenai frekuensi
atau pola kejadian, masalah, cacat, lokasi cacat,
penyebab cacat, dan sebagainya.

12-19
Cause-and-Effect Diagram (Fishbone Diagram)
Fishbone Diagram juga biasa disebut dengan
Diagram Ishikawa, diciptakan oleh Kaoru
Ishikawa, yang memelopori teknik manajemen
kualitas di Jepang pada tahun 1960.

Fungsinya untuk mengidentifikasi akar

penyebab dari suatu efek atau masalah yang
berpengaruh terhadap kualitas.

Faktor Utama:
1. Man
2. Material
3. Method
4. Machine
5. Environment

12-20
 Opportunity Flow Diagram
Used to separate value-added from non–value added steps in a process.

12-21
Process Control Chart

“grafik garis dengan pencantuman batas maksimum

dan batas minimum yang merupakan batas daerah
pengendalian.”

Bagan ini menunjukkan perubahan data dari waktu

ke waktu tapi tidak menunjukkan penyebab
penyimpangan, meskipun adanya penyimpangan itu
terlihat pada bagan kendali tersebut.

12-22
Additional Six Sigma Tools (1)
FMEA
Structured approach to identify, estimate,
prioritize, and evaluate risk of possible failures at
each stage in the process.

HOW?
• Identify each element, assembly, or part of the
process and listing the potential failure modes,
potential causes, and effects of each failure.
• A risk priority number (RPN) is calculated for
each failure mode. It is an index used to
measure the rank importance of the items listed
in the FMEA chart

12-23
Additional Six Sigma Tools (1)
Design of experiments (DOE)
• Sometimes referred to as multivariate testing
• A statistical methodology to determine cause-and-
effect relationships between process variables and
output.
• Permits experimentation with many variables
simultaneously

12-24
 Lean Six Sigma

• Lean Six Sigma combines the implementation and quality control tools of Six Sigma and the
inventory management concept of lean manufacturing.
• Lean manufacturing achieves high-volume production and minimal waste through the
use of just-in-time inventory methods.
• "Lean" --> reducing cost by lowering raw material, work-in-process, and finished goods inventory to
an absolute minimum.
• Lowering inventory requires a high level of quality because processes need to be predictable since
extra inventory is not available.
• Reducing variability is a key driver in successful lean Six Sigma programs. 12-25
 Six Sigma Roles and Responsibilities

1. Executive leaders, who are truly committed to Six Sigma and who
promote it throughout the organization, and champions, who take
ownership of the processes to be improved.
• Champions are drawn from the ranks of the executives.
• Managers are expected to identify appropriate metrics early in the project
and make certain that the improvement efforts focus on business results.
2. Corporation-wide training in Six Sigma concepts and tools.
• Black belts: coach or actually lead a Six Sigma improvement team
• Master black belts: receive in-depth training on statistical tools and process
improvement (they perform many of the same functions as black belts but
for a larger number of teams)
• Green belts: Employees who have received enough Six Sigma training to
participate in a team or, to work individually on a small-scale project directly
related to their own job.
3. Set stretch objectives for improvement
4. Continuous reinforcement and rewards

12-26
What makes a good champion?
 The Shingo System: Fail-Safe Design
Named after the co-developer of the Toyota just-in-time system, Shigeo Shingo.
1. How to accomplish drastic cuts in equipment setup times by single-minute exchange of die
(SMED) procedures
2. The use of source inspection and the poka-yoke system to achieve zero defects.

Shingo’s argument:
 SQC methods do not prevent defects.
 Defects arise when people make errors.
 Defects can be prevented by providing workers with feedback on errors.
1. Successive check
2. Self-check
3. Source inspection

Poka-yoke includes:
 Checklists
 Special tooling that prevents workers from making errors
ISO 9000 and ISO 14000
 Series of standards agreed upon by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
 Adopted in 1987
 Used in more than 160 countries
 A prerequisite for global competition?
 ISO 9000 an international reference for quality
 ISO 14000 primarily concerned with environmental management

Three Forms of ISO Certification:

1. First party: a firm audits itself against ISO 9000 standards
2. Second party: a customer audits its supplier
3. Third party: a "qualified" national or international standards or certifying
agency serves as auditor
External Benchmarking of Quality Inspection

1. Identify those processes needing improvement.

Identify a firm that is the world leader in performing the process. For many processes, this may
be a company that is not in the same industry.
Examples:
• Identify a firm that is tProcter & Gamble using Amazon as the benchmark in evaluating its
order entry system.
• Ford Motor Company benchmarking Walmart to improve its distribution system

2. Analyze data.
Look at gaps between what your company is doing vs what the benchmarking company is
doing:
a. Compare the actual processes
b. Compare the performance of these processes according to a set of measures.
The processes are often described using flowcharts and subjective evaluations of how workers
relate to the process.
Chapte
r 13

Statistical Quality
Control
F. Robert Jacobs & Richard B. Chase, Mc.Graw Hill 15th ed.
 01 Definition

02
Section
Statistical Process Control

03 Procedures

04 Acceptance Sampling

32
 Definition
Statistical Quality Control 1 33
Statistical Quality Control

“
◉ The application of statistical techniques to
control a process
◉ Periodic sampling of a process and
analysis of these data using statistically
derived performance criteria

34
Quality
Control

35
 Quality Control

Incoming Inprocess Outgoing

36
“
Recall yang Menyakitkan
Perusahaan
Ledakan—secara harfiah— di Galaxy
Note 7 tentu saja membuat Samsung
merugi. Perusahaan finansial Credit
Suisse memprediksi Samsung bisa
mengalami kerugian sebesar US$17
miliar atau sekitar Rp221 triliun akibat
gagal menjual Galaxy Note 7

2016

37
 Variation Type
Assignable variation Common variation

Variation that can be avoided Variation that can not be avoided

workers not being equally trained result of the type of equipment used to complete a process
Variation that is caused by factors that can be Variation that is inherent in the process itself
identified and managed
38
 Basic Statistic
Mean Standar Deviation

average value of a set of numbers Measure of how much individual operation

deviate from the mean (spread)

39
 Specification Limit
Upper “ The range of values in a measure associated
with a process that is allowable given the
intended use of the product or service.
the maximum acceptable
value for a characteristic

Lower

the minimum acceptable value

for a characteristic

NPK granule yang telah dikeringkan, dibawa ke

screen untuk diayak atau dipisahkan antara product
on-size, under size dan over size.

40
 Variability Costs
Traditional View
Pendekatan ZeroDefect
• Pendekatan ini menyatakan bahwa suatu produk dikatakan
memenuhi standar kualitas apabila produk tersebut berada
pada batas spesifikasi limit.
• Setiap produk yang berada dalam batas spesifikasi ini
adalah produk yang ‘acceptable’ dalam arti penyimpangan
produk yang dihasilkan dari standar/targetnya dapat ditoleransi
sehingga produk tersebut bisa dikirim ke konsumen.
Taguchi’s View
• Metode Taguchi memungkinkan para insinyur untuk menganalisis
berbagai variabel dalam jumlah besar dan interaksi di antara
berbagai variabel tersebut untuk mencapai mutu tertinggi dengan
penggunaan waktu dan biaya yang paling kecil.
• suatu produk yang dihasilkan harus fit for use. Hal ini dapat diartikan
bahwa dalam menghasilkan produk haruslah memenuhi target
atau standar yang telah ditetapkan. Apabila terdapat
penyimpangan terhadap produk yang dihasilkan, walaupun produk
tersebut masih berada dalam batas spesifikasi, tidak dapat
diterima dan ditoleransi.
41
 Variability Costs
Taguchi’s View

• Taguchi menggambarkan kerugian ini dalam grafik yang dikenal

dengan Taguchi Quality Loss Function. Fungsi ini juga
didasari oleh pemikiran bahwa penyimpangan produk dari nilai
targetnya tersebut akan menimbulkan biaya kerugian yang
tersembunyi (hidden quality cost). Menurut Taguchi, biaya
kualitas yang tersembunyi ini meliputi ketidakpuasan
konsumen, kehilangan pangsa pasar dan biaya perbaikan
produk kembali.

• Dari grafik Fungsi kerugian Kualitas Taguchi ini dapat dilihat

bahwa biaya kualitas adalah nol ketika produk yang dihasilkan
memenuhi nilai target, dan biaya kualitas meningkat secara
simetris terhadap produk yang menyimpang dari nilai targetnya.
Fungsi Biaya Kualitas Taguchi ini dapat diterapkan oleh berbagai
perusahaan manufaktur yang memproduksi produk-produk
dengan tingkat ketelitian besar.

42
 Measuring Process
Capability
Specification limits “
The ability of a process to consistently produce
a good or deliver a service with a low
probability of generating a defect
range of variation that is considered
acceptable by the designer or
customer

Process limits

range of variation that a process is able

to maintain with a high degree of
certainty
Process control limits are plus and
minus three standard deviations

43
 Measuring Process
Capability
Example

The specification limits are related to the design of the part.

Suppose that initially a design is selected and the diameter of the
bearing is set at 1.250 inches ± 0.005 inch. Recall that, from a design
view, acceptable parts have a diameter between 1.245 and 1.255 inches.
The consistency of a process for making the bearing can be measured by
the standard deviation of the diameter measurement. A test can be run by
making, say, 100 bearings and measuring the diameter of each bearing in
the sample. After running the test, the average or mean diameter is
found to be 1.250 inches
Consider that the diameter values have a standard deviation or sigma
equal to 0.002 inch. What this means is that the process does not
make each bearing exactly the same size.
normally a process is monitored using control charts such that if the
process starts making bearings that are more than three standard
deviations (3 x 0.002 = ± 0.006 inch) above or below 1.250 inches, the
process is stopped. This means that the process will produce parts
that vary between 1.244 and 1.256 inches (process limit)

44
Measuring Process
Capability

“
We say that a process is capable when
the mean and standard deviation of the
process are operating such that the upper
and lower control limits are acceptable
relative to the upper and lower
specification limits

If the process can be improved by reducing the

standard deviation the probability of producing
defective parts can be reduced.

45
 Process Capability Index (Cpk)

USL = Upper Specification Unit “

The ratio of the range of values allowed
by the design specifications
divided by the range of values produced
LSL = Lower Specification Unit
by a process
= Standar deviation

= Process Average (mean)

 Cpk larger than one indicates process is

capable
 When the two numbers are not close, indicates
mean has shifted

46
 Process Capability Index (Cpk)
Example 13.1

Quality Assurance Manager menilai kemampuan suatu

proses yang menempatkan tekanan minyak dalam
kaleng aerosol.
Spesifikasi desain membutuhkan tekanan rata-rata
60 psi di setiap kaleng dengan batas spesifikasi
atas 65 psi dan batas spesifikasi bawah 55 psi.
Sampel diambil dari produksi dan ditemukan bahwa
tekanan pada kaleng rata-rata 61 psi dengan
standar deviasi 2 psi.
 Capability of the process?
 What is the probability of producing a defect?

47
Process Capability Index (Cpk)

 Cpk smaller than one indicates

process is non-capable
(more defects will be produced by
this process)

48
Process Capability Index (Cpk)

49
Process Capability Index (Cpk)

“Quick reference for the fraction of defective

units for various design specification limits
(expressed in standard deviations).

This table assumes that the standard deviation is constant

and that the process is centered exactly between the
design specification limits.

50
 Statistical Process
Control
The difference of Atribute and Variable 2 51
 Statistical Process Control
Atribute

• quality characteristics that are

classified as either conforming or
not conforming
• involve characteristics or other Statistical Process Control
information that you can't quantify
(qualitative).
“
Techniques for testing a random sample of
output from a process to determine whether the
Variable process is producing items within a prescribed range

• characteristics that are Concerned with monitoring quality while the

measured using an actual product or service is being produced
value
• involve numbers measured on
a continuous scale (quantitive)

52
 Procedures
Process Control with Attribute Measurement 3 53
 Process Control with Attribute Measurement – p-Charts
◉ Used when an item or service is either good or bad (yes-no decision)
◉ Trait : Upper Control Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL)
◉ How to create p-charts :
 Calculate fraction defective

 Calculate standard deviation

 Calculate UCL dan LCL

Notes :
z = 3 for 99,7% confidence level

54
p-Charts Example
 Process Control with Attribute Measurement – c-Charts
◉ Used when an item or service may have multiple defects
◉ Trait : UCL and LCL, Poisson distribution
◉ How to create c-charts :
 Calculate avg number of defects per unit

 Calculate standard deviation

 Calculate UCL dan LCL

Notes :
z = 3 for 99,7% confidence level

56
c-Charts Example
 Process Control with Variable Measurement – and R-
Charts 𝑿 ´
◉ Using actual variable to create control charts
◉ There are 4 things to be considered :
 Size of samples  preferable to take small (commonly 4-5 units)
 Number of samples  minimum 25
 Frequency of samples  trade of between cost of sampling + cost of
goods vs benefit of adjusting the system
 Control limit  In SPC, best practices using 3 std dev or 3 sigma

58
Factor for 𝑿 ´ Chart dan R Chart for each n

59
𝑿 ´and R-Charts Example

𝑿 ´ -Charts

R-Charts

60
Process Control Charts Interpretation

61
 Control Chart Example at PG
Batasan N2 Rerata
Tanggal BKA BKB
Plant : Urea 1A minimum ( Xi ) (X)

Sampling Loc : Outlet Prilling Tower 1 46,00 46,40 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
2 46,00 46,40 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
Date of Sampling : April 2019 3 46,00 46,41 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
4 46,00 46,41 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
5 46,00 46,39 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
6 46,00 46,40 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
7 46,00 46,40 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
8 46,00 46,42 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
9 46,00 46,42 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
10 46,00 46,41 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
11 46,00 46,41 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
12 46,00 46,42 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
13 46,00 46,42 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
14 46,00 46,40 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
15 46,00 46,39 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
16 46,00 46,39 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
17 46,00 46,42 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
18 46,00 46,40 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
19 46,00 46,41 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
20 46,00 46,44 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
21 46,00 46,43 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
22 46,00 46,43 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
23 46,00 46,43 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
24 46,00 46,43 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
25 46,00 46,42 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
26 46,00 46,43 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
27 46,00 46,41 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
28 46,00 46,42 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
29 46,00 46,39 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
30 46,00 46,39 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
31 46,00 46,41 46,4390 46,3827
Rata-rata 46,41
Maximum 46,44 stdev = 0,01406922

Minimum 46,39
62
Acceptance Sampling
Let’s start with the first set of slides 4 63
 Sampling Acceptance
◉ Performed on goods that already exist to determine what percentage of the
products conform to specifications
◉ Executed through a sampling plan
◉ Results include accept, reject, or retest

Sampling Acceptance Purpose

◉ Determine quality level
◉ Ensure quality is within predetermined level

64
 Sampling Acceptance – Pros & Cons

Pros Cons
◉ Economy ◉ Risks of accepting “bad” lots
◉ Less handling damage and rejecting “good” lots
◉ Fewer inspectors ◉ Added planning and
documentation
◉ Upgrading of the inspection
job ◉ Sample provides less
information than 100 percent
◉ Applicability to destructive
inspection
testing

65
 Creating Sampling Plan
Determine :
(1) How many units (n) to sample Lot
Acceptance Tolerance
from a lot Quality Percent
Level
(2) Maximum number of defective (AQL)
Defective
(LTPD)
items (c) that can be found in the
sample before the lot is rejected

Producer’s Consumer’s
risk (α) risk (β)

66
 Creating Sampling Plan Example

1. LTPD/AQL = 8/2 = 4
AQL = 2%
2. Match with the closest one at
α = 5% 2nd column, didapat c = 4
LTPD = 8% 3. Check 3rd column which
β = 10% corresponding with c=4,
didapat n = 1,97/AQL =
1,97/0,02 = 98,5
4. C = 4 ; n = 99

67
Operating Characteristic Curve

68
THANKS!
Any questions?

69