METODOLOGI PENELITIAN

BM. Purwanto, MBA, Ph. D.

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 BAGIAN I: Style of Thinking

Authority and Postulate Self-Evident

Tradition Truth

Common Pengetahuan Science

Sense (knowledge)

Case Studies Personal

Myth and Experience
Superstition

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 “Style of Thinking”
Rasionalisme
• Postulational

Empirisisme
• Self-Evident Truth • Scientific Method
Idealisme

• Method of Authority

• Literary (Case Study)

• Untested Opinion

Eksistensialisme

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 Rasionalisme – Eksistensialisme dan
Empirisisme - Idealisme
1. Empirisisme: Observasi dan proposisi berdasar pada
pengalaman dengan menggunakan metoda inductive
logic, termasuk matematik dan statistik. Empirisis
berusaha mendiskripsi, menjelaskan, dan memprediksi
informasi faktual yang diperoleh melalui observasi

2. Rasionalisme: Sumber utama pengetahuan adalah

penalaran (reasoning dan judgment). Pengetahuan
dideduksi dari kebenaran dan hukum alam. Karena
hukum alam mengatur semesta secara logik.

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Beberapa Contoh Gaya Berpikir atau
Methods of Knowing

1. Untested Opinion, Intuition/A Priori Method:

Angka 13 adalah angka sial
Laut Selatan dikuasai Ratu Selatan

2. Self-Evident Truth atau Method of Tenacity:

Semua mahluk hidup akan mati
Semua benda di Bumi akan jatuh ke bawah

3. Method of Authority:
Rahasia Perusahaan Sukses di Amerika (Peters and
Waterman, 1982)
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Beberapa Contoh Gaya Berpikir atau
Methods of Knowing (lanjutan)

4. Literary Style:
Studi kasus pada sebuah perusahaan
Teori Motivasi Abraham Maslow

5. Postulational Style:
Simulasi difusi inovasi
Maksimisasi profit; MR = MC

6. Scientific Method

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 Bagian II: Research – Knowledge – Audience

Form of Knowledge
Audience Reflexive Instrumental Instrumental
Autonomous Commissioned Autonomous

Basic Research
Scientific Basic critical Basic contract Basic professional
Community
Applied Research
General Public Public intellectual Dedicated policy Democratic policy
Participants Public educator Consultant Participatory
Researcher
Generalist Democratic Democratic Democratic applied
practitioners deliberation contract
Narrow Dedicated Dedicated contract Dedicated applied
practitioners deliberation
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 Basic and Applied Research Compared
Aspect Basic Research Applied Research
Primary audience Scientific community Practitioners, participants, or
(others researchers) supervisors (non-researchers)
Evaluators Researcher peers Practitioners, supervisors
Autonomy of High Low-moderate
researcher
Research rigor Very high Varies, moderate
Highest priority Verified truth Relevance
Purpose Create new knowledge Resolve a pratical problems
Success indicated by Publication and impact Direct application to address
on knowledge/scientist specific concern/problem

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BAGIAN III: Science and Research Paradigms

Science

Metoda Ilmiah Norma Komunitas

Prosedur yang ketat untuk
Ilmiah
menghasilkan penelitian Seperangkat norma dan
yang berkualitas nilai profesional yang
diinternalisasi oleh
peneliti.

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 Science

 Pengetahuan (body of knowledge) yang terklasifikasi

dan tersistematisasi

 Terorganisasi berdasar satu atau lebih teori sentral

dan sejumlah prinsip umum

 Biasanya diekspresi secara kuantitatif

 Pengetahuan yang memungkinkan untuk

memprediksi dan, dalam beberapa situasi, untuk
mengendalikan kejadian di masa datang

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 Validitas Penelitian
 Validitas Internal
 Pemahaman yang mendalam
 Identifikasi kausalitas
 Validitas Eksternal
 Generalisasi
 Replikasi
 Alamiah

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 Metoda Ilmiah
 Penilaian terhadap pengetahuan yang relevan
 Pembentukan konsep dan spesifikasi pertanyaan
penelitian/hipotesis
 Pengumpulan data
 Pengorganisasian dan analisis data dengan cara yang
relevan
 Evaluasi dan pembelajaran dari temuan/hasil riset
 Penyebaran informasi riset
 Memberikan penjelasan
 Membuat prediksi
 Melakukan aktifitas pengendalian yang diperlukan

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 The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

 PURPOSIVENESS
 The manager must start with a defined aim or purpose for the
research. It means the scientific research must be purposive.
 RIGOR
 Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of
exactitude in research investigations.
 TESTABILITY
 Scientific research let itself to test logically developed hypotheses to
see whether or not the data support the educated conjectures or
hypotheses that are developed after a careful study of the problem
situation.
 REPLICABILITY
 Our hypotheses would not have been supported merely by chance,
but is reflective of the true state of affairs in the population.

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 The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
 PRECISION AND CONFIDENCE
 Precision refers to how close the findings, based on a sample, are
to “reality”
 Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct
 OBJECTIVITY
 The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of
data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on
the facts resulting from the findings from actual data.
 GENERALIZABILITY
 Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the research
findings in one organizational setting to other settings.
 PARSIMONY
 Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and
in generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to
complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageable
number of factors.
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 Norma Komunitas Ilmiah

1. Universalism: Penelitian dinilai semata-mata

atas dasar sumbangannya terhadap ilmu
pengetahuan; tanpa melihat pihak yang
melakukan penelitian dan tempat penelitian
dilakukan
2. Organized Skepticism: Ilmuwan harus selalu
bersikap kritis dan berhati-hati dalam
menerima ide baru
3. Disinterestedness: Ilmuwan harus netral dan
terbuka terhadap hal-hal baru.

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Norma Komunitas Ilmiah (lanjutan)

4. Communalism: Pengetahuan ilmiah harus

disebarluaskan dan dimiliki bersama. Temuan
ilmiah merupakan milik publik yang dapat
digunakan oleh semua orang. Proses riset
harus dipaparkan secara rinci
5. Honesty: Merupakan norma budaya yang
utama bagi seorang peneliti dan ilmuwan.
Ketidak jujuran merupakan tabu besar.

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 Research Paradigm
Radical Change

Radical Radical
Humanist Structuralist
Subjective

Objective
Interpretivist Functionalist

Regulation

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Alternative Inquiry Paradigms

Research Paradigm

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Summary of Paradigms

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 Research Context
Abstract
Generalization
Deductive

Inductive Justification

Discovery Confirmatory

Exploratory Quantitative

Qualitative
Concrete
Empirical
Evidence
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 Scientific Research

Paradigma Paradigma
Kualitatif Kuantitatif

Riset Riset
Kualitatif Kuantitatif

Mixed Methods
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 Paradigma Kualitatif dan Kuantitatif
Paradigma Kualitatif Paradigma Kuantitatif
Metoda kualitatif Metoda kuantitatif
Memahami perilaku manusia dari sudut Mencari fakta atau penyebab fenomena
pandang si aktor (emic) sosial secara obyektif (etic)
Pendekatan fenomenologi Pendekatan logical-positivism
Uncontrolled, naturalistic observational Obtrusive, controlled measurement
measurement
Subyektif, insider perspective, tidak Obyektif, outsider perspective, menjaga
menjaga jarak dengan data jarak dengan data
Grounded, discovery oriented, Ungrounded, verification oriented,
exploratory, expansionist, descriptive, confirmatory, reductionist, inferential,
inductive hypothetico-deductive
Orientasi proses Orientasi hasil
Validitas sangat penting, nyata, kaya, Reliabilitas sangat penting, hard data,
dan mendalam data mudah direplikasi
Holistik, sintesa Partikularistik, analisis 23
 Riset Kualitatif dan Kuantitatif
Riset Kualitatif Riset Kuantitatif
Mengungkap makna ketika peneliti Menguji hipotesis yang mengawali
menyatu dengan data proses penelitian
Konsep berupa tema, gambaran, dan Konsep berupa variabel-variabel yang
taksonomi (klasifikasi/kategorisasi) unik

Instrumen dikembangkan secara ad hoc, Instrumen dikembangkan secara

sistematik dan terstandar sebelum
spesifik pada setting dan peneliti pengumpulan data
Data dalam bentuk kata-kata atau kesan Data dalam bentuk angka dari
yang bersumber dari dokumen, pengukuran dengan presisi tinggi
observasi, dan transkrip
Teori dapat bersifat kausal atau Teori pada umumnya bersifat kausal dan
nonkausal dan induktif deduktif
Prosedur riset sangat khas dan replikasi Prosedur riset terstandar dan replikasi
sangat jarang dilakukan perlu dilakukan

Analisis dilakukan untuk mengekstraksi Analisis menggunakan statistik, tabel,

tema dari temuan-temuan riset atau diagram dan dikaitkan dengan
hipotesis 24
 Kriteria bagi Terwujudnya Scientific Knowledge

Riset Kualitatif Riset Kuantitatif

Credibility: konstruksi realitas yang

Validitas Internal
memenuhi syarat dan dapat dipercaya

Transferability: dapat diterapkan pada

Validitas Eksternal
konteks lain yang memiliki kesamaan

Dependability: stabilitas interpretasi Reliabilitas

Confirmability: konstruksi interpretasi

peneliti dapat ditelusuri kembali melalui Obyektifitas
catatan prosedur penelitian
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 Differences among Three Approaches to Research

Interpretive Critical Social

Positivism
Social Science Science
To discover natural
1. Reason for To understand and To smash myths and
laws so people can
describe meaningful empower people to
research predict and control
social action change society radically
events

2. Nature of Stable preexisting Fluid definitions of a Conflict filled and

patterns or order that situation created by governed by hidden
social reality can be discovered human interaction underlying structure

Self-interested and Social beings who Creative, adaptive

3. Nature of rational individuals create mening and who people with unrealized
human beings who are shaped by constantly make sense potential, trapped by
external forces of their worlds illusion and exploitation

4. Role of Clearly distinct from Powerful everyday False beliefs that hide
and less valid than theories used by power and objective
common sense science ordinary people conditions

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 Differences among Three Approaches to Research

Interpretive Critical Social

Positivism
Social Science Science
A logical deductive
A description of how a A critique that reveals
5. Theory system of
group’s meaning true conditions and
interconnected
looks like system is generated helps people see the
definitions, axioms,
and sustained way to a better world
and laws

6. An explanation Is logically connected Resonates and feels Supplies people with

to laws and based on right to those who are tools needed to change
that is true facts being studied the world

7. Good Is based on precise Is embedded in the

Is informed by a theory
observations that context of fluid social
evidence that unveils illusions
others can repeat interactions

Science is value free, Values are an integral All science must begin
8. Place for and values have no part of social life; no with a value position;
values place except when group’s values are some posistions are
choosing a topic wrong; only different right; some are wrong
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 BAGIAN IV:
Desain Penelitian

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 Argumen dalam Penelitian

• Deduction: penarikan kesimpulan yang

dianggap konklusif
• Induction: pengambilan kesimpulan dari
satu atau beberapa fakta

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 Elemen Teori
 Konsep dan Konstruk
 Definisi: konseptual, teoretikal dan operasional
 Variabel:
 Laten dan Terobservasi
 Independent, dependent, mediating
(intervening), moderating, extraneous
 Proposisi dan Hipotesis
 Teori
 Model: pengukuran dan struktural

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 Theoretical Framework
 A logically developed, described, and explained network of
associations among variables of interest to the research study.
 Five basic features of theoretical framework:
 The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly
identified and labelled in the discussions.
 The discussions should state how two or more variables are related to
one another.
 If the nature and direction of the relationship can be theorized on the
basis of the findings from previous research, then there should be an
indication in the discussion as to whether the relationship would be
positive or negative.
 There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these
relationship to exist.
 A schematic diagram of the theoritial framework should be given so the
reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationship.

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 Research Purpose
 Exploration – exploratory research
 If the issue was new or researchers had written little on it, you began
at the beginning.
 Exploratory researchers are creative, open minded, and flexible. It
adopts and investigates stance; and explores all sources of
information.
 Description – descriptive research
 Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a
situation, social setting, or relationship.
 Descriptive researchers use data-gathering techniques: field
research, content analysis, and historical-comparative research.
 Explanation – explanatory research
 When you encounter an issues that is already known and have a
description of it, you might begin to wonder why things are the way
they are.
 The desire to know “why,” to explain, is the purpose of explanatory
research.
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Probability Sampling Designs
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Proportionate
 Disproportionate
 Cluster sampling
 Double sampling

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 Nonprobability Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
 Purposive Sampling
 Judgment Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Snowball Sampling

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 Metode Pengumpulan Data

 Eksperimen  Wawancara
 Survey  Kuesioner
 Content analysis  Observasi
 Existing Statistic  Motivational Techniques
 Field Research
 Historical Comparative

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Power to Produce Effects:
Control and Manipulation/treatment

 Field Study
 Field Experiment
 Lab Experiment
 Simulation
 Ex Post Facto

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 Dimensi Waktu Studi
 Cross-sectional studies: pengukuran
variabel dilakukan sekali; perbandingan
antar unit pada titik waktu yang sama

 Longitudinal studies: pengukuran

variabel dilakukan lebih dari sekali (time
series, panels, cohorts); pengukuran
perubahan/perbedaan dari waktu ke
waktu
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 Cakupan Studi
 Statistical studies berupaya
menjelaskan karakteristik populasi
melalui sampel, biasanya bersifat
deskriptif

 Case studies menekankan pada

analisis kontekstual kejadian-kejadian
atau kondisi, mengembangkan argumen
mengenai kausalitas
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 Unit Analisis
(tingkat agregasi data)
 Individu
 Dyads, triads
 Group
 Organisasi
 Industri
 Kultur

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 Level Analisis

 Individu
 Organisasi

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 Pengukuran
 Objects:
 Things of ordinary experience
 Some things not concrete
 Properties: characteristics of objects
 Observed Variables
 Unobserved Variables (latent variables,
constructs)

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 Pengukuran
Emic and Etic Approach
 An emic approach to the measurement process
begins with empirical indicators and aims to
discover the constructs that facilitate our
understanding of these indicators.

 An etic approach to the measurement process

begins with formal constructs and aims to select
empirical indicators to represent these
constructs.

 Lee, C. J. (2002). Aspects of emic and etic measurement: Lessons from

Mary Poppins. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 56, 214–216.

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 Model Pengukuran
Formatif dan Reflektif

Formatif: to explain Reflektif: to describe

Faktor Indikator

Faktor Konstruk Indikator

Faktor Indikator

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 Tipe Data
Order Interval Origin
Nominal none none none

Ordinal yes unequal none

Interval yes equal or none

unequal
Ratio yes equal zero
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 VALIDITAS INSTRUMEN

 CONTENT AND FACE VALIDITY (JUDGMENTAL)

 CONCURRENT VALIDITY (CORRELATION,
CROSS SECTIONAL)
 PREDICTIVE VALIDITY (CORRELATION,
LONGITUDINAL)
 CONSTRUCT VALIDITY (JUDGMENTAL,
CONVERGENT – DISCRIMINANT TECHNIQUES,
FACTOR ANALYSIS, MTMM ANALYSIS)

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 RELIABILITAS INSTRUMEN

 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY (SPLIT HALF

TECHNIQUE, ITEM-TO-TOTAL CORRELATION,
CRONBACH’S COEFFICIENT ALPHA)
 STABILITY (TEST-RETEST)
 EQUIVALENCE (INTERRATER RELIABILITY,
DELAYED EQUIVALENT FORMS)
 CONSTRUCT RELIABILITY (CONFIRMATORY
FACTOR ANALYSIS)

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 Analisis Data

 Analisis Kuantitatif
 Analisis Kualitatif

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