Atomic Structure/

Radioactivity
 Excitation/Ionization
 Takes a specific/exact amount of E to excite
an e- from one state to the next

 E in addition to this can ionize

 Result = ion pair

 This a key concept in HP as it is the method

by which E is transferred to living material
 Some Key Points
 All matter composed of
combinations of elements
 Smallest piece of element
that retains characteristics
is an atom
 Known elements
arranged on periodic
table according to their
chemical characteristics
 118, or so, elements
discovered, only 92
occur naturally
 Atomic Models
 Solar system
 Problems…
 Planetary – Bohr
 Maybe classical EM theory doesn’t apply
to atomic electrons
 Used Planck’s Quantum Theory – atomic
model we use today
Planetary Model of the
Atom
1) Protons (nucleus)
1) Positive charge
2) Large mass
2) Neutrons (nucleus)
1) No charge
2) Large mass
3) Electrons
1) Negative charge
2) Small mass
• Charge on an electron is equal but
opposite the charge on a proton.
• An ion is an atom that has either lost or
gained electrons and therefore has a net
charge
• Electrons “orbit” nucleus
• Force of attraction between e- and
nucleus balanced by centrifugal force
of revolution
• A neutral atom has equal numbers of
protons and electrons (zero net charge)
 Fundamental Postulates
 Electron can only revolve around nucleus in
fixed radii – stationary state

 Photon is emitted ONLY when e- falls from

orbit of higher energy to one of lower

 When this happens we get what?

Characteristic X-ray
 What is
happening?

 Application?
 Nuclear Structure

What do we find in the nucleus?

 Neutrons (n) and protons (p)
- Most of the mass of an atom is in
the nucleus

- Mass of a proton is 1836 times

greater than the mass of the electron
P and N about equal
What are nucleons comprised of?
 Useful Definitions

 Atomic number (Z): No. of protons

(electrons) in a given neutral atom
 determines the element
 Atomic mass (A): No. of neutrons plus
the number of protons in an atom
 Neutron Number (N): Number of
neutrons in an atom
 Useful Definitions
 Isotope: Atoms with the same Z but
different A

 Isotone: Same N

 Isobar: Same A
• Light stable isotopes (Z<20) have N
approximately equal to Z

• Heavy stable isotopes (Z>20) have N

greater than Z

• Neutrons act as “spacers” to reduce

electric repulsion between the protons in
nucleus
Proton Mass = 1.007277 u
Neutron Mass = 1.008665 u
Neutron Mass
+ Proton Mass = 2.015942 u

Deuteron Mass = 2.013553 u

Missing Mass
(N + P – D) = 0.002389 u

What happened to the mass?????

 aka
Answer: It is converted into
mass decremen
binding energy according to mass defect
Einstein’s mass energy relation

E=mc2
For the deuteron example, this is
2.22 MeV of energy. If we want to
break the deuteron apart we must
give this energy back.

Units of energy : 1 calorie = 4.186 Joule

1 Btu = 252 calorie
1 MeV = 1.6 × 10 -13
Joule
What is actually more important is the binding
energy per nucleon
For Deuterium: BE/A = 2.22 MeV/2 = 1.11 MeV

Atomic Mass No (A)

Note that iron (Fe) has the highest binding
energy per nucleon. This is the most stable
element in nature in that it requires more
energy per particle to break it apart than
anything else.

Fusion energy comes from combining light

elements to make heavier ones (increase
binding energy per nucleon for elements lighter
than iron).

Fission energy comes from breaking heavy

elements into lighter ones (increase binding
energy per nucleon for elements heavier than
iron).
 Nuclear Transformation

 When the atomic nucleus undergoes

spontaneous transformation, called
radioactive decay, radiation is emitted
 If the daughter nucleus is stable, this
spontaneous transformation ends
 If the daughter is unstable, the process
continues until a stable nuclide is reached
 Nuclear Transformation
 Radionuclides decay in one or more
of the following ways: (a) alpha
decay, (b) beta-minus emission, (c)
beta-plus (positron) emission, (d)
electron capture, (e) internal
conversion, or (f) spontaneous
fission.
 Alpha Decay

An alpha (α ) particle is composed of two protons

and two neutrons, thus its atomic mass is 4 and
its atomic number is 2. (Note: this is a He-4
nucleus)
A A-4 4

Z
X →
Z-2
Y +
2
α
Example

232 228 4

90
Th → Ra + α
88 2

Occurs with heavy nuclides (Z >

82)
 Beta-Minus (Negatron)
Decay
 Beta-minus (β -) decay: occurs with
radionuclides that have high n:p ratio

A
Z X→ Y +β
A
+ 1
Z
0
-1 ν+
 Beta-Plus Decay (Positron
Emission)
 Beta-plus (β +) decay occurs with
radionuclides that have low n:p ratio

A
Z X→ A
Y + β + ν
Z-1
0
1

 Eventual fate of positron is to annihilate with

its antiparticle (an electron), yielding two
0.511 MeV photons emitted in opposite
directions
 Examples of Beta Decay

228 228 0

88
Ra → Ac 89
+
-1
β Beta Minus Decay

11 11 0

6
C →
5
B +
1
β Beta Plus Decay
 Electron Capture
 Alternative to positron decay
 Nucleus captures an orbital (usually K- or L-
shell) electron

A
Z X+ 0
e
-1 → νY A
Z -1 +
 Electron capture radionuclides used in
medical imaging decay to atoms in excited
states that subsequently emit detectable
gamma rays
 Alternative emission:
Isomeric Transition
 During radioactive decay, a daughter may be
formed in an excited state
 Gamma rays emitted as the daughter nucleus
transitions from the excited state to a lower-
energy state
 No mass/charge therefore, no change in
element

Am
Z X → A
Z X + γ
 Spontaneous Fission
In spontaneous fission, an atom splits instead of
emitting an alpha or beta particle. Very common for
heavy elements. Usually also results in neutron
emissions

Example:
256 140 112 1

100
Fm→ Xe 54
+
46
Pd + 4 n 0
 Line of Stability

β- N=P
Neutron

ec, β+, α

Proton
 Decay Schemes
 Each decay process is unique to that
radionuclide
 Majority of pertinent information about the
decay process and its associated radiation can
be summarized in a line diagram called a
decay scheme
 Decay schemes identify the parent, daughter,
mode of decay, intermediate excited states,
energy levels, radiation emissions, and
sometimes physical half-life
 Radioactive decay series
Often times the products of a radioactive decay are
themselves radioactive. These products will continue to
decaying until we reach a stable isotope.
222
Rn

↓ α decay
3.8 day
218
Po

↓ α decay
3.1 min
214
Pb
→ 214
Bi
→ 214
Po

β - decay
26.8 min
β - decay
19.9 min
↓ α decay
164µ sec

210
Pb
 General Format for Decay
Schemes
Radionuclide

β-(E, %)
Decay Mechanism β+
α ec

γ
Final product
Determining Dtr Product in
Chart of Nuclides
α in

β- out p in

Original
n out n in
Nucleus

β+, ec
p out
out

α out
 Decay Constant
 Number of atoms decaying per unit
time is proportional to the number of
unstable atoms
 Constant of proportionality is the decay
constant (λ )
dN/dt = -λ N
A=λ N
Units = time -1
 Physical Half-Life

λ = ln 2/t1/2 = 0.693/t1/2

 Physical half-life and decay constant

are inversely related and unique for
each radionuclide
The half-life of various isotopes can range from
billions of years to small fractions of a second.
Isotope Half-Life
Tritium 12.26 years (beta minus)

Strontium 90 28.8 years (beta minus)

Cesium 137 30.2 years (beta minus)
Carbon 14 5730 years (beta minus)
Radon 222 3.8 days (alpha)
Polonium 218 3.1 minutes (alpha)
Polonium 214 164 microseconds (beta
minus)
Uranium 238 4.5 billion years (alpha)
Uranium 235 710 million years (alpha)
Plutonium 238 86 years (alpha)
Plutonium 239 24400 years (alpha)
Plutonium 240 6580 years (alpha)
Plutonium 241 13.2 years (beta minus)
 Fundamental Decay
Equation
Nt = N0e-λ t or At = A0e-λ t
where:
Nt = number of radioactive atoms at time t
At = activity at time t
N0 = initial number of radioactive atoms
A0 = initial activity
e = base of natural logarithm = 2.71828…
λ = decay constant = ln 2/Tp1/2 = 0.693/Tp1/2
t = time
 Activity
 The quantity of radioactive material,
expressed as the number of radioactive
atoms undergoing nuclear transformation
per unit time, is called activity (A)
 Traditionally expressed in units of curies
(Ci), where 1 Ci = 3.70E10 disintegrations
per second (dps)
 The SI unit is the becquerel (Bq)
 1 mCi = 37 MBq

1 g of Ra-226 = 3.7E10 dis/sec

 Specific Activity
 Defn of activity tells us nothing about
mass/volume
 SA = concentration of radioactivity
Half-life
0.693 g/mole
T1/2
ARa × TRa
SA(Ci / gm) = λ N =
Ai × Ti
6.023E23 at/mole
A g/mole
 Naturally Occurring Series
 Thorium Series (4n)
 Neptunium Series (4n+1)
AUNT
 Uranium Series (4n+2)
 Actinium Series (4n+3)
 4n
 Divide mass numbers in a series by 4
 The +1, +2, +3 is the remainder after
dividing by 4
 Due to emission of either alpha (4 mass
units) or beta (0 mass units)
 End point for three series is lead
 Np series end is Bi-209
 Each series named for long lived isotope
 Serial Transformation
 rate of change = rate of formation -
rate of transformation
 Equilibrium - special cases of serial
transformation
 Secular Equilibrium
 Transient Equilibrium
 No Equilibrium
λA λB
A → B → C
 Secular Equilibrium
 Half life of parent very much greater than
that of daughter
 occurs about 5-6 half-lives of dtr
 T½ parent >> T½ daughter
 λ A << λ B
 Activity of parent and dtr are equal if
parent atoms decay only to dtr
 Ex.
 90Sr is in secular equilibrium with 90Y
 Secular Equilibrium
 λ BNB = λ ANA ( 1 - e-λ t )

 After 7 half lives:

 λ ANA = λ BNB
 Activity of daughter = activity of parent
 Transient Equilibrium
 Half life of parent slightly greater
than that of daughter
 T½ parent > T½ daughter
 λ A<λ B
 Tc-99m = Transient
 99Mo and 99mTc
 Transient Equilibrium
 Equations 4.55 and 4.56

λ Bλ A N A
λB NB =
λB − λ A
λB
QB = QA
λB − λ A
 Transient Equilibrium
 Total activity reaches a maximum
 Equation 4.57
ln(λ B / λ A )
t md =
λB − λ A
 After maximum, daughter seems to
decay with same half life as parent
General Equation for Serial
Transformation

λAλA0 − λ At − λB t
NB = (e −e )
λB − λA
 Summary
 Decay = spontaneous nuclear
transformation which results in
formation of new elements
 Chemical properties do not affect decay
 Decay mechanisms…
 Decay kinetics…
 Activity…
 Radionuclide Generators
 Technetium-99m has been the most important
radionuclide used in nuclear medicine
 Short half-life (6 hours) makes it impractical to
store even a weekly supply
 Supply problem overcome by obtaining parent Mo-
99, which has a longer half-life (67 hours) and
continually produces Tc-99m
 A system for holding the parent in such a way that
the daughter can be easily separated for clinical
use is called a radionuclide generator
 Radionuclide Production
 All radionuclides commonly
administered to patients in nuclear
medicine are artificially produced
 Most are produced by cyclotrons,
nuclear reactors, or radionuclide
generators
 Cyclotrons

 Cyclotrons produce radionuclides by bombarding

stable nuclei with high-energy charged particles
 Most cyclotron-produced radionuclides are
neutron poor and therefore decay by positron
emission or electron capture
 Specialized hospital-based cyclotrons have been
developed to produce positron-emitting
radionuclides for positron emission tomography
(PET)
 Usually located near the PET imager because of short
half-lives of the radionuclides produced
 Nuclear Reactors
 Specialized nuclear reactors used to produce
clinically useful radionuclides from fission
products or neutron activation of stable target
material
 Uranium-235 fission products can be
chemically separated from other fission
products with essentially no stable isotopes
(carrier) of the radionuclide present
 Concentration of these “carrier-free” fission-
produced radionuclides is very high
 Neutron Activation
 Neutrons produced by the fission of
uranium in a nuclear reactor can be used
to create radionuclides by bombarding
stable target material placed in the reactor
 Process involves capture of neutrons by
stable nuclei
 Almost all radionuclides produced by
neutron activation decay by beta-minus
particle emission
Ideal Radiopharmaceuticals
 Low radiation dose
 High target/nontarget activity
 Safety
 Convenience
 Cost-effectiveness