TECHNIQUES OF

CLASSROOM
INVESTIGATION
Cleopatra Kisau (D20081032083)
Kelvin Naga Anak Pengabang (D2008103278)
Olivia Sendie Anak William (D20081032085)
 Introduction
Sometimes teachers are not able to use the events
happened in the classroom to develop a deeper
understanding about teaching which is actually
essential for their critical reflection. Therefore,
teachers have to find ways to gather the full
information of the events by developing their own
strategies. According to Richard, J.C. & Lockhart,
C. (1994), there are some procedures that can be used
to help teachers investigate classroom teaching.
 Why do teachers investigate?
Hopkins, D. (2008:1 & 6)

Undertaking research in their own & colleagues’

classrooms is one way in which teachers can take
increased responsibility for their actions & create a
more energetic & dynamic environment in which
teaching & learning can occur.

 Improves teaching & the quality of education in

school by looking critically at their own classrooms
 Aims of investigative projects

 To provide student teachers to gain new

awareness of the interaction happen in
their classrooms
 To consider how they would approach a
lesson differently

(Gebhard, J.G, Gaitan, S. & Oprandy, R.)

 Why student teacher observation
Developing a terminology for understanding
& discussing the teaching process
Developing an awareness of the principles &
decision making that underlie effective
teaching
Distinguishing between effective &
ineffective classroom practices
Identifying techniques & practices student
teachers can apply to their own teaching
(Richard R. Day., 1990)
 Criteria for classroom research
Teacher’s primary job is teaching & any research method
shouldn’t interfere with the teaching commitment
The method of data collection must not be too demanding on
the teacher’s time
The methodology employed must be reliable to allow teachers
to formulate hypothesis confidently & develop strategies
applicable to their classroom situation
The research focus should be one to which he/she is
committed
Teachers should pay attention to the ethical procedures
surrounding their work
Classroom research should adopt a ‘classroom exceeding’
perspective
(Hopkins, D., 2008)
 Approaches to
classroom investigation
in teaching
Richards, J.C. & Lockart, C. (1994)
 Teaching journals
Lesson reports
Surveys and questionnaires
Audio and video recordings
Observation
Action research
 JOURNALS
 Written or recorded accounts of teaching experiences.
 A journal is a teacher’s or a student teacher’s written response to
teaching events.
 Keeping a journal serves two purposes:
i. Events and ideas are recorded for the purpose of later reflection.
ii. The process of writing itself helps trigger insights about teaching.
 Serves as a discovery process.
 Many different topics from classroom experiences can be explored
through journal writing;
a. Personal reactions to thing that happen in the classroom or in the
school.
b. Questions or observations about problems that occur in teaching.
c. Ideas for future analysis or reminders of things to take action on.
Bailey(1990,) Porter et al. (1990), & Walker (1985)
– recommended procedures for keeping a journal
 Make entries on a regular basis
 Review journal entries regularly
 Ask questions while reviewing the journal
What do I do as a teacher?
What principles and beliefs inform my teaching?
Why do I teach the way I do?
What roles do learners play in my classes?
Should I teach differently?
Keeping a journal can also be beneficial when one or
more colleagues share their journals and meet
regularly to discuss them. (Brock, Yu and Wong 1992)
 LESSON REPORTS
 Written accounts of lessons which describe the main features of the
lessons.
 A structured inventory or list which enables teachers to describe their
recollections of the main features of a lesson.
 Purposes: give the teacher a quick and simple procedure for regularly
monitoring what happened during a lesson, and how much time was
spent on different parts of a lesson, and how effective the lesson was.
 A lesson plan describes what a teacher intends to do during a lesson, a
lesson report describes what actually happened from the teacher’s POV.
 Serves as a useful record of many important features of the lesson and can
hence be used to help monitor the teacher’s teaching.
 To be effective, lesson report forms should be prepared by a teacher or
group of teachers to match the goals and content of the particular course
they are teaching.
 The following procedures are recommended in preparing
self-report forms:
1) First, identify in as much detail as possible the philosophy
underlying the course and the different kinds of teaching
activities, procedures and resources that you expect to use
in the course.
2) Next, prepare a lesson report form.
3) Use the lesson report form on a regular basis to record the
activities, procedures, and resources used throughout the
course.
4) Meet periodically to review and compare lesson reports
with those of other teachers teaching the same course.
Discuss any differences that are emerging in the way you
teach the class and the reason for these differences.
 An alternative approach to lesson reporting is
simply for the teacher to spend a few minutes
after a lesson writing answers to questions such
as the following:
 What were the main goals of the lesson?
 What did the learners actually learn in the lesson?
 What teaching procedures did I use?
 What problems did I encounter and how did I deal with
them?
 What were the most effective parts of the lesson?
 What were the least effective parts?
 Would I do anything differently if I taught the lesson again?
 SURVEYS AND
QUESTIONNAIRES
 Activities
such as administering a questionnaire
or completing a survey, designed to collect
information on a particular aspect of teaching or
learning.

 Useful ways of gathering information about

affective dimensions of teaching and learning,
such as beliefs, attitudes, motivation and
preferences, and enable a teacher to collect a
large amount of information relatively quickly.
 AUDIO OR VIDEO
RECORDING
 Recording of a lesson, or part of the lesson.
 Advantage : Relatively easy to carry out.
 Disadvantage : Obtain subjective impressions of teaching and by
their nature can capture only recollections and interpretations of the
events and not the actual events themselves.
 Advantages of recording a lesson:
I. Allows choice of focus – this could be the teacher or a particular
group of students.
II. The recording can be replayed and examined many times and can
capture many details of a lesson that cannot easily be observes by
others means, such as the actual language used by the teacher or
learners during a lesson.
Limitations of recording a lesson:

I. Recording device may be disruptive.

II. Recording device have a limited range (e.g:
they may capture only students seated in the
front row.)
III. Reviewing a recording is time consuming.
 OBSERVATION
 Tasks completed by a students teacher observing a
cooperating teacher’s class, or a peer observation. (e.g: tasks
completed by a teacher visiting a colleague’s class)
 Involves visiting a class to observe different aspects of
teaching.
 Suggested as a way of gathering information about teaching,
rather than a way of evaluating teaching.
 In order for observation to be viewed as a positive rather
than a negative experience, the observer’s function should be
limited to that of gathering information.
 The observer should not be involved in evaluating a teacher’s
lesson.
 ACTION RESEARCH
 Implementation of an action plan designed to
bring about change in some aspect of the
teacher’s class with subsequent monitoring of the
effects of the innovation.
 Teacher-initiated classroom investigation.
 Seeks to increase the teacher’s understanding of
classroom teaching and learning, and bring about
the change in classroom practices (Gregory,
1988; Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988).
Involves a small-scale investigative projects in
the teacher’s own classroom, and consists of a
number of phases which often recur in cycles:

Planning

Action
Reflection

Observation
1. Select an issue or concern to examine in more
detail.
2. Selects a suitable procedure for collecting
information about the topic.
3. Collect the information, analyzes it, and decides
what changes might be necessary.
4. Develop an action plan to help bring about the
change in classroom behaviour.
5. Observe the effects of the action plan on the
teaching behaviour and reflects on its
significance.
6. Initiates a second action cycle, if necessary.
TECHNIQUES AND INTRUMENTS
FOR OBSERVATION

i. Qualitative approaches
ii. Quantitative approaches

Richard R. Day (1990)

QUALITATIVE
APPROACHES
 Qualitative
Advantages Disadvantages
approaches

General goal-to It takes a highly

Several terms, provide rich, trained observer to do
including educational descriptive data about a competent and
ethnography (Good what happens in the reliable observation.
and Brophy 1987) second language
and wide-lens classroom.
(Acheson and Gall
1987). Attempts to capture
the essence or spirit if
what was going on
during the observer’s
presence.
It is useful when the
observer wants to
capture broad picture
of a lesson rather
than focus on a
particular aspect of it.
Qualitative approaches
Written Ethnography
•Classic technique
•should be as descriptive and
objective as possible
•should not be judgmental or
evaluative.
•often goes beyond observing
the teacher, the students, and
he interaction between them.
•includes information about
the classroom (e.g., size,
seating, furnishing, physical
equipment), and the quality
and quantity of visual aids,
room temperature and so on.
•helps to sensitize students
teachers to the complexity of
teaching and to bring to their
attention events of which they
might not be aware.
Advantages
To introduce students teachers to
the complexity of the second
language classroom.
Help students teachers to see
the multiple roles of the second
language teacher.
Allow the students teacher to
compare and contrast a teacher’s
use of both subject-matter
knowledge and action-system
knowledge during a lesson.
It provides more information
about the social context of the
classroom, which may be useful
in interpreting behaviour.
Disadvantages
It takes a highly trained
observer to do a competent
and reliable observation.
Too many activity make
students teacher often has a
great deal of difficulty in
keeping up with the action.
The student teacher may tire
quickly, a and fail to keep an
accurate record of events.
Written ethnography may be
affected by the biases of the
students teacher.
It does not address specific
questions; therefore, the
information collected is often
inappropriate for addressing
specific issues.
It is difficult to compare the
results with other classes
since it does not focus on a
particular set of classroom
behaviours.
 Qualitative
Advantages
approaches
Audio and video Its permit teachers to see and Intrusive
recordings hear themselves as their
students see and hear them
Its have the potential of
capturing the essence of the
classroom
Its can be listened to or
viewed over and over
Allow participants to agree on
an interpretation of an event
or behaviour.
Most useful results are
obtained when the camera is
focused in the teacher.
Disadvantages
Need to set up the
equipment before
students arrive.
Allow students to
examine the equipment
before class begins.
Teacher might take
advantage of the
equipment as a focus for
part of an activity or
lesson.
The increase number of
students will increase
the degree of complexity
of the observation.
 Qualitative
Advantages Disadvantages
approaches

A limited or Students teacher’s attention is focused If the teacher is aware that

selected on the particular behaviour being the students teacher plans
ethnography observed. to record uses of yes/no
or recording questions, for example. the
teacher might modify his or
•focus on the This allows the student teacher the her behaviour.
whole class, opportunity to evaluate the
without regard effectiveness of the behaviours.
to any
particular Objective natural of the data, even if If the student teacher could
issues or the observation is written and not choose rather uninteresting
behaviours. recorded in some fashion.-record only a or trivial behaviours on
selected set of behaviours. which to focus, it will be
•It is possible apparent when the student
to modify the teacher examines the data
procedure to Written technique is easy to use- that there is very little to
focus on observer do not have to be highly be learned about what was
individual trained to do full-scale ethnography. recorded.
behaviour or
set of
behaviours. The data are often relatively simple to
interpret.
QUANTITATIVE
APPROACHES
 Quantitative approaches
•take the form of a check list
or a form to be filled in or
completed.
•The behaviour or behaviours
in question are indicated in
some fashion, and the
observer's role is to record
their occurrence and, as
appropriate, the time.
•Many instruments as there
are observers, for they are
easily devised and employed
in the classroom.
•These instruments may be
divided into frequency counts
or classroom observation
scales and are designed to
examine teacher behaviour,
students behaviour, or the
interaction between the
teacher and the students or
among students.
Advantages
Simple to construct or
revise and to use.
Observer does not have to
be highly trained.
It may give actual number
of behaviours per unit of
time, allowing for
comparison among
students or across classes.
Disadvantages
It may not be trivial
aspects of the teaching
and learning process.
It may not be crucially
involved with or related to
the concerns or purpose of
the observation.
The actual behaviours
observed may not explain
all of the facts of the focus
of the observation or the
problem.
The teacher will most
likely not know what else
the students did during the
observation period.
 Advantages Disadvantages
Inference Easy to use. It have to do mainly
•A major factor associated with with their nature.
quantitative approaches.
Their confidence can be
•Instruments may be differ as to placed in the data they
a degree of inference they generate.
require the observer to make,
ranging from relatively low- Reliability.
inference items to high-
inference items.

•Low-inference=readily
recognized and specific.

•High-inference=more convert,
less specific behaviour.

The advantages and disadvantages of low-inference instruments

 Advantages Disadvantages

Seating Chart Ease of use and interpretation. Same with other low-
Observation inference instruments.
Records.
A great deal of information
•SCORE (Acheson and
about classroom interaction
Gall)(1987:97) can be consolidated on one
page.
•Simple concept= using
a seating of he
classroom to be
observed, the observer Allow examination of individual
records the students without losing sight of
occurrences of the the behaviour of the other
target behaviour or students in the classroom.
behaviours.

Allow observer and the teacher

to examine important features
of classroom behaviour.
 SCORE
Advantages Disadvantages
instruments
Teacher and Record teachers’ questioning
student talk behaviour and how they praise
students,
•Acheson and Gall
To code student questions and
(1987:105)=verbal
responses.
flow=technique
used to record who
is talking to whom
and how
frequently.

At-task It gives the teacher knowledge High-inferential task

about what students are doing in
the classroom.
Information obtained=to have a Low-inferential task
conference with the students-to
determine what the student’s
problem were.
Movement To chart the movements of the May indicate biases toward
patterns teacher or students, or both, certain students.
during a lesson.
Trace what a teacher does during
activities that are not teacher-
fronted.
DATA GATHERING
 Field notes
 Audiotape recording
 Pupil diaries
 Interviews
 Videotape recorder & digital camera
 Questionnaires
 Sociometry
 Documentary evidence
 Case study
 Mapping techniques
 Pupil drawings

(Hopkins, D. (2008)
Field Notes – reporting observations,
reflections & reactions to classroom problems

Advantages
Very simple to keep: no outsider
needed
Provide good ongoing record;
used as a diary they give good
continuity
First-hand information can be
studied conveniently in teacher’s
own time
Act as an aide-memoire
Help to relate incidents, explore
emerging trends
Very useful if teacher intends to
write a case study
Disadvantages
•Need to fall back on aids such as
question analysis sheets, tapes &
transcripts for specific
information
•Conversation impossible to
record
•Notebook works with small
groups but not with a full class
•Initially time-consuming
•Can be highly subjective
Audiotape recording
Advantages
•Very successfully monitors all
conversations within range of the
recorder
•Provides ample material with
great ease
•Versatility – can be transported/
left with a group
•Records personality
developments
•Can trace development of a
group’s activities
•Can support classroom
assessment
Disadvantages
•Nothing visual – does not record
silent activity
•Transcription largely prohibitive
because of expense & time
involved
•Masses of material may provide
little relevant information
•Can disturb pupils because of its
novelty; can be inhibiting
•Continuity can be disturbed by
the practical problems of
operating
Pupil diaries
Advantages
•Provides feedback from pupil’s
perspective
•Can be either focused on a
specific training episode/related
to the general classroom climate
•Can be part of a lesson
•Can help in identifying individual
pupil problems
•Involves pupil in improving the
quality of the class
•Provides a basis for triangulation
Disadvantages
•May not be established practice
in the school
•Difficult for younger children to
record their thoughts & feelings
•Pupils may be inhibited in
discussing their feelings with the
teacher
•Pupil’s accounts are obviously
subjective
•May raise ethical dilemmas
Interviews – teacher/pupil
Advantages Disadvantages
•Teacher in direct contact with •Time-consuming
pupil •May be carried out with some
•Pupil(s) familiar with teacher, form of recording equipment,
more at ease with attendant disadvantages
•Teacher able to seek information •Difficult to get younger children
directly to explain their thoughts/feelings
•Can be done in lesson
time/outside the class
•Can follow up problems
immediately & get information
while minds are still fresh
Interviews – observer/pupil
Advantages
•Leaves teacher free as the
interviewer discovers initial
information from the pupil(s)
•Pupil(s) often more candid with
the outsider than with class
teacher
•Outsider is likely to be more
objective
•Outsider can focus the
information provided along
predetermined lines of
investigation
Disadvantages
•Pupil(s) unfamiliar with the
observer may be reluctant to give
relevant information
•Mutual uncertainty
•If the teacher is the primary
agent in the research, they will
get their information secondhand
& subject to the biases of the
interviewer
•Time-consuming
•Difficult to obtain a skilled
outsider
Interviews – pupil/pupil
Advantages
•Pupils may be more candid with
each other
•Leaves teacher free
•Can occur during lesson time
•May produce unanticipated/
unusual perspectives
Disadvantages
•Pupils may find the activity too
unfamiliar
•May encourage disruption
•Has to be recorded and played
to teacher
 Videotape recorder & digital camera
Videotape recorder
Advantages
-Enable all situations to be
reviewed
-Origin of problems can be
diagnosed
-Behavioural patterns of teacher
& pupils can be seen
-Patterns of progress over long
periods can be clearly charted
Disadvantages
-Can be very conspicuous &
distracting
-Operator only record which they
deem to be importance
Digital camera
Advantages
-Advantage may be obtained by
looking at images of kids
working/at end products of their
work, & as stimulus for
discussion
-Helps to get observation &
comment from other teachers
who were not present at the time
Disadvantages
-Shows isolated situations;
difficulty of being in the right
place at the right time;
concentrates on small groups &
individuals; records nothing in
depth
-Images may not truly depict the
activities
Questionnaires
Advantages
•Easy to administer; quick to fill
in
•Easy to follow up
•Provides direct comparison of
groups & individuals
•Provides feedback on:
-Attitudes
-Adequacy of resources
-Adequacy of teacher help
-Preparation for next session
-Conclusions at the end of term
•Data are quantifiable
Disadvantages
•Time-consuming
•Extensive preparation to get
clear & relevant questions
•Difficult to get questions that
explore in depth
•Effectiveness depends very
much on reading ability &
comprehension of the students
•Students may be fearful of
answering candidly
•Students will try to produce
‘right’ answers
Sociometry
Advantages Disadvantages
•Simple way to discover social •Possibility of compounding the
relationships in class isolation of some pupils
•Provides guide to action
•Can be integrated into class
activity
Documentary evidence
Advantages
•Illuminate issues surrounding a
curriculum/teaching method
•Provide context, background &
understanding
•Provide an easy way of obtaining
other people’s perceptions
Disadvantages
•Obtaining documents can be
time-consuming
•Certain documents may be
difficult to obtain
•Certain persons may be
unwilling to share ‘confidential’
documents
Case study
Advantages Disadvantages
•Simple way of plotting the •Time-consuming
progress of a course/a pupil’s •Feedback available to teacher
reaction to teaching methods only after considerable lapse of
•Information yielded by case time
studies will tend to give a more
accurate & representative picture
than will any one of the research
methods detailed above: case
studies draw on data gathered by
many methods
Pupil drawings
Advantages
•Easy, fun & quick approach to
gather pupil’s views & reactions
to teaching & to life within the
school
•Information can be informative &
could depict accurately students’
views & experiences
Disadvantages
•Analysis of the drawings could
be challenging
•Some students may feel
threatened & provide invalid data
•Students could provide the
‘right’ answers
My plans for
semester 8
project paper