ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY II /

HUMAN ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY II
“ENDOCRINE SYSTEM”

NURSING
NURSING PROGRAM
2nd LESSON / PART I
 The Endocrine System

• Organ system composed by small

organs called endocrine glands that
are spread throughout the organism.

• There are organs that don’t

belong to the endocrine system
but have endocrine functions as
well.
 Organs with
Endocrine glands endocrine functions

• Pineal gland • Placenta

• Pituitary gland
(Hypophysis) • GIT
• Thyroid gland • Heart
• Parathyroid glands • Brain
• Pancreas (endocrine
division) • Thymus
• Adrenal (suprarenal) • Gonads
glands
 Functions of the
Endocrine System

• Controls the metabolism of cells

other than the ones producing the
hormones, located in far away
tissues and organs, thus they
trigger changes in the function of
the organs, organ systems and this
how they maintain, along with the
nervous system, the homeostasis.
 Endocrine Glands

• Ductless organs made of epithelial

cells specialized in secreting
hormones. Organized in clusters and
surrounded by a rich capillary bed.
 Hormones
• Chemical messengers.
• Synthesized in endocrine glands
• Exert the action on tissues other than
those where they were produced.
• Released directly into the blood stream.
• They bind to specific receptors on the
target cells
• They modify the metabolic activity of the
target cell.
 Chemical composition of
hormones
Proteins Lipids (Steroids)

• All hormones • Hormones from

except those the adrenal
cortex
coming from
the adrenal • Hormones from
the gonads
cortex and
the gonads.
 Mechanism of action of
protein-based hormones
(Extracellular receptors)
 Mechanism of action of
lipid-based hormones
(Intracellular receptors)
 Regulation of hormone
secretion I: The feedback
mechanisms
 Regulation of hormone
secretion II: The biorhythm
 Regulation of hormone
secretion III: the CNS role
 Regulation of
homeostasis
Nervous system Endocrine system

• Nervous • Hormones:
positive and
impulses: negative
directly feedback, and
influence the metabolic
cell membrane changes in the
target cell.
permeability.
 Key concepts
• Endocrine system
• Endocrine gland
• Hormone
• Regulation
• Feedback mechanisms
• Neuroendocrine regulation
• Hypothqlamic-hypophyseal axis
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY II /
HUMAN ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY II
“ENDOCRINE SYSTEM”

NURSING
NURSING PROGRAM
2nd LESSON / PART II
The Pituitary Gland or
Hypophysis
Anatomy of the Pituitary
Gland
Histology of the Pituitary
Gland
 Hormones secreted or
released by the Pituitary
Gland
Adenohypophysis: Secretes and Neurohypophysis: Stores and
releases the following hormones. releases the following hormones.
 Non tropic hormones: • Oxytocin
• PRL (Prolactine) • ADH (anti diuretic
• GH (Growth hormone)
hormone)
 Tropic hormones:
• ACTH (Adrenocorticotrophic
hormone)
• Gonadotropins: FSH and LH
• TSH (Thyroid stimulating
hormone)
Thyroid Gland
Anatomy of the Thyroid
Gland
Histology of the Thyroid
Gland
 Thyroidal Hormones
Hormones secreted by the follicular Hormone secreted by the “C” or
cuboidal cells parafollicular cells
• Triiodothyroxine (T3) • Calcitonin:
more potent than T4
High [Ca++ ] in
• Tetraiodothyroxine (T4)
blood
They increase the
metabolism in all cells.
Necessary for the normal Stimulates
development and
osteoblasts
maturation of the CNS.
Play a role in growth and
development Ca++ in blood go to
bones
 Thyroid Hormones
imbalance
Hyperthyroidism Hypothyroidism
• Speed up metabolism • Myxedema: Skin thick
• Increased heart rate and puffy
• Slowed-down metabolism
• Increased peristalsis
• Slow heart rate
• Heat intolerance
• Sluggish peristalsis
• Hyperactivity
• Low body temperature
• Weight loss
• Low energy (constant
• Emotional swings fatigue)
• Exophthalmia • Loss of hair
• Weight gain
Parathyroid Glands
Parathyroid
hormone
Stimulates osteoclasts

Increased bone
resorption

Ca++ goes from bone

to blood

[Ca++] in blood
increases
 Calcium unbalance
Hypocalcemia Hypercalcemia
• Generally due to a parathyroid
• Tetany: (Maintained tumor.
contraction of muscles) • Increased secretion of PTH
• What’s dangerous in this • Increased Osteoclastic activity
• Increased bone resorption (bone
disease that a respiratory pain)
arrest can be provoked • Calcium will move from bone to
due to continuous blood (hypercalcemia)
• Excess calcium excreted by
contraction of laryngeal urine (hypercalciuria), leading to
and the respiratory stones formation.
muscles causing asphyxia • Depression of CNS, heart, and
GIT system leading to
and death. depression, fatigue, bradicardia,
anorexia, and constipation.
Adrenal Glands
 Regions of the Adrenal
Glands
• Adrenal cortex: The outermost region,
localized under the capsule and surrounding
the medulla. Consists of three zones:
a.Zona glomerulosa
b.Zona fasciculata
c. Zona reticulata
• Adrenal medulla: The central region,
considered an extension of sympathetic
nervous system. The chromafine cells
secrete the catecholamines:
epinephrine and norepinephrine
 Zones in the Adrenal
Cortex, and the Adrenal
Medulla: Histology.
Hormones secreted by the
adrenal gland
 Actions of
catecholamines
• Elevate blood pressure
• Increase heart rate
• Convert glycogen into glucose
• Increase the metabolic rate in most cells
• Causes bronchodilation
• Changes blood flow patterns by causing
vasodilatation in the heart and muscle blood vessels
and vasoconstriction in the blood vessels entering
the digestive system.

• A pheochromocytoma is a tumor of the adrenal medulla that

simulates an excessive sympathetic activity. The most important
symptom is a life-threatening high blood pressure. The successful
tumor removal ends all the symptoms, including the high blood
pressure.
 Actions of hormones from
the Cortex
• Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) are secreted by the zona
glomerulosa:
 Regulate the blood pressure and the concentration of
electrolytes (especially NaCl) by retaining it and facilitating
the excretion of potassium.
• Glucocorticoides (Cortisol) are secreted by the zona
fasciculata:
 Directly affect the carbohydrates by stimulating
gluconeogenesys (convert amino acids to glucose).
 Maintain glucose levels between meals.
 Metabolize proteins and fats to obtain energy.
 Cortisol is known as the stress hormone.
 Anti-inflammatory effects.
 Actions of hormones from
the Cortex

• Sex hormones are produced in the

zona reticulata in small amounts. In
females the normal ovarian
production of estrogens hides the
adrenal production.
 Adrenal cortical
insufficiency: The Adison’s
disease
• The adrenal cortex hypo secretes
hormones
• Generalized weakness
• Muscle atrophy
• Bronzy color of the skin
• Severe loss of fluids and electrolytes
• Complications if not treated: low blood
volume, shock, and death.
• Treatment: steroids and replacement of
fluids and electrolytes
 Cushing’s syndrome
• Caused by hypersecretion of either ACTH by the
pituitary gland or Cortisol by the adrenal cortex
• Also iatrogenic (excessive administration of
steroid drugs such as prednisone)
• Trunkal obesity
• Moon face
• Buffalo hump
• Virilization
• Hirsutism
• Thin skin
• Low bone density
• Muscle weakness
 Key concepts
Pituitary gland Hormones of AH
Adenohypophysis (AH) Hormones of NH
Neurohypophysis(NH) T3 and T4
Thyroid gland Calcitonin
Parathyroid gland PTH
Adrenal gland Cortex
Medulla Addison’s disease
Cushing’s syndrome Hormones of the Adrenal
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY II /
HUMAN ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY II
“ENDOCRINE SYSTEM”

NURSING
NURSING PROGRAM
2nd LESSON / PART III
 The pancreas
• The pancreas is a mixed gland composed by an
exocrine portion that secretes the pancreatic
juice , which contains enzymes used during the
digestion.
• The endocrine portion is composed by secretory
cells that are arranged in groups named Islets of
Langerhans. There four types of cells in it:
Beta cells: insulin (hypoglycemia)
Alpha cells: Glucagon (hyperglycemia)
Delta cells: somatostatin (suppression of both
insulin and glucagon)
PP cells: pancreatic polypeptide hormone (GIT
effects)
Pancreatic
acini

Islet of
Langerhans
 Insulin
• Released when there are high [glucose] in blood
• It has many target cells, exerts widespread effects
• It is made of more than one hundred amino acids
 ACTIONS:
• Helps transport the glucose into most cells (except the cells
in the liver and brain)
• Helps control carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism.
• Stimulates the glycolysis to obtain energy.
• Stimulates the glycogenesis in the liver and skeletal muscle.
• Stimulates the transport of aa into the cells and the
formation of proteins from aa.
• Stimulates the fat synthesis from fatty acids.
 Diabetes Mellitus
• Diabetes must be considered a
syndrome that mainly affect the
metabolism of carbohydrates, but
also that of the lipids, and proteins.
• Clinically diagnosed by observing the
“three P’s”:
1.Polyphagia
2.Polyuria
3.Polydipsia
• Hyperglycemia: Excess of sugar in the blood because the
glucose cannot enter the cell (no or low insulin levels). This
absence of glucose inside of the cells triggers the gluconeogenesis
from amino acids.
• Glycosuria: The excessive glucose concentration in blood causes
more glucose to be eliminated by the urine.
• Polyuria: Glycosuria causes water loss. (Glucose “pulls” water).
• Polydipsia: The excessive water loss fires the thirst mechanism in
an attempt to replace the water lost.
• Polyphagia: Despite the amount of glucose in blood the cells
cannot use it, it is like if the diabetic would not have any food in
the body to take energy from.
• Acidosis: Due to an excess of H+ in the blood. These H+ come
from the break down of fatty acids to obtain the required energy,
this alternative pathway forms a byproduct known as ketoacids
providing the excessive amount of H+.
• Fruity odor to the breath: The acetone is produced as a
byproduct of fatty acids metabolism. This odor is a symptom of
ketoacidosis, a complication in diabetic people.
 Infections and Diabetes
Diabetes Infection Increased glucagon secretion
as well as other stress hormones:
cortisol, epinephrine, GH.

Increased blood sugar

levels

Hyperglycemia
 Gonads

• Sex glands
• Ovaries (female): Estrogen and progesterone.
• Testes (male): Testosterone.
 Testosterone

• Secondary sex characteristics

• Development of sperm cells
• Stimulates the libido
 Estrogens
• Development of the egg
• Development of secondary sex characteristics:
 Enlargement and development of the organs in the
female reproductive system
 Enlargement and development of the breasts
 Deposition beneath the skin (special distribution)
 Widening of the pelvis
 Onset of menstrual cycle
 Closure of epiphyseal discs in long bones
 Progesterone

• Secreted by the corpus luteum, then by the placenta

• Establishes the menstrual cycle with estrogen
• Maintain pregnancy
• Prepares the breast for milk production after pregnancy
 Thymus gland

• Located in the thoracic cavity, with the

sternum in front of it
• Larger in children than in adults due to
an involution process during puberty
• Secretes the thymosin hormones
The Pineal Gland
 The Pineal Gland

• Located in the brain, close to the thalamus.

• Affects the reproductive cycle by means of the
hormone melatonin.
 Effects of Melatonin

• Influence the secretion of hypothalamic

releasing hormones
• Plays a role in sexual maturation
• Influence the sleep-wake cycle (the
sunlight inhibits its secretion): high
amounts of melatonin makes the
individual sleepy
 Key concepts
Pancreas Gonads Melatonin
Insulin Estrogens
Glucagon Progesterone
Islets of Langerhans Testosterone
Beta cells Leydig cells
Alpha cells Corpus luteum
Hypoglycemia Thymus gland
Hyperglycemia Thymosin hormones
Diabetes Mellitus Pineal gland