MIKROBIOLOGI

&
PARASITOLOGI

Adzwin Azhari, S.Pd

 MIKROBIOLOGI

• Mikrobiologi (dalam Bahasa Yunani mikros = kecil, bios

= hidup, dan logos = ilmu) merupakan suatu ilmu
tentang organisme hidup yang berukuran mikroskopis.
• Berdasarkan pendekatan taksonomis, mikrobiologi
dibagi menjadi virologi, bakteriologi, mikologi, fikologi,
dan protozoologi. Sedangkan berdasarkan pendekatan
fungsional, mikrobiologi dibagi atas ekologi mikroba,
mikrobiologi industri, mikrobiologi pertanian,
mikrobiologi kedokteran, mikrobiologi pangan,
fisiologi mikroba, genetika mikroba, dan sebagainya.
 SEJARAH PENEMUAN MIKROORGANISME

• Sejarah mikrobiologi dimulai saat penemuan mikroskop

oleh Robert Hooke pada tahun 1664, seorang
matematikawan, sejarawan alam, dan ahli mikroskopi asal
Inggris. Melalui mikroskopnya yang terdiri atas dua lensa
sederhana, Hooke mampu mengilustrasikan struktur
badan buah dari suatu jenis kapang. Meskipun Robert
Hooke dapat melihat sel dengan bantuan mikroskopnya, ia
tidak dapat melihat mikroorganisme dengan jelas karena
tidak adanya metode pewarnaan.
• Orang pertama yang melihat bakteri adalah Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
(1632-1723), seorang pembuat mikroskop amatir berkebangsaan Belanda.
Pada tahun 11684, Leeuwenhoek menggunakan mikroskop lensa tunggal
yang menyerupai kaca pembesar, hasil karyanya sendiri untuk mengamati
berbagai mikroorganisme dalam bahan alam. Leeuwenhoek menyebut
benda yang diamatinya sebagai animalcules (hewan kecil) yang ia peroleh
dari sisa makanan yang menempel di giginya serta air hujan, dan pada
berikutnya dikenal sebagai bakteri dan protozoa.
• Bertahun-tahun setelahnya, banyak observasi lain yang menegaskan hasil
pengamatan Van Leeuwenhoek, namun peningkatan tentang pemahaman
sifat dan keuntungan mikroorganisme berjalan sangat lambat sampai 150
tahun berikutnya. Baru di abad ke 19, yaitu setelah produksi mikroskop
meningkat pesat, keingintahuan manusia akan mikroorganisme mulailah
berkembang lagi.
• Hingga pertengahan abad ke-19 banyak ilmuwan dan filosuf percaya
bahwa makhluk hidup muncul secara spontan dari benda tak hidup.
Mereka meyakini bahwa belatung dapat muncul dari material busuk, ular
dan tikus dapat lahir dari tanah lembab, dan lalat dapat timbul dari pupuk.
• Teori generatio spontania terbantahkan setelah seorang
ilmuwan Italia bernama Fransisco Redi yang mendemonstrasikan
penemuannya bahwa belatung bukan berasal dari daging yang
busuk. Hasil penemuan Redi menunjukkan adanya belatung di
atas daging busuk pada tabung yang tidak tertutup, sedangkan
pada tabung yang tertutup tidak ditemukan belatung
• Pada tahun 1858, ilmuwan Jerman Rudolf Virchow
mengemukakan teori biogenesis, yang menyatakan bahwa
semua sel hidup hanya dapat timbul dari sel hidup yang ada
sebelumnya. Teori ini didukung oleh Louis Pasteur ilmuwan
Perancis pada tahun 1861
• Robert Koch (1842-1910), seorang dokter berkebangsaan
Jerman. Koch menemukan bakteri berbentuk batang Bacillus
anthracis dalam darah sapi yang mati karena penyakit
anthraks. Koch menumbuhkan bakteri tersebut pada media
bernutrisi dan menyuntikkan bakteri tersebut pada sapi yang
sehat. Sapi ini kemudian menjadi sakit dan mati. Koch
mengisolasi bakteri darah sapi dan membandingkannya
dengan kultur bakteri yang lebih dulu diisolasi dan kedua
kultur berisi bakteri yang sama. Penemuan Koch ini
membuktikan bahwa bakteri adalah penyebab penyakit.
Berdasarkan penemuannya, Koch adalah orang pertama yang
menemukan konsep hubungan antara penyakit menular dan
mikroorganisme yang dikenal dengan Postulat Koch yang kini
menjadi standar emas penentuan penyakit menular
 DASAR-DASAR BIOLOGI SELULER

• Sel merupakan unit structural terkecil dari organisme

hidup. Sel di kelilingi oleh selaput/membrane sel yang
di dalamnya terdapat cairan (protoplasma) atau
matriks, dan bentuk-bentuk subselular, organel sel,
yang juga dikelilingi membran. Protoplasma terdiri dari
plasma sel (sitoplasma) dan inti sel (nucleus), Di dalam
inti sel terdapat plasma inti atau nukleoplasma. Secara
struktural, sel merupakan satuan terkecil mahluk
hidup yang dapat melaksanakan kehidupan, yang
merupakan unit terkecil penyusun mahluk hidup.
• Secara fungsional, sel berfungsi untu menjalankan fungsi
kehidupan (menyelenggarakan kehidupan jika sel-sel
penyusunya berfungsi), kemudian membentuk
organisme. Sel berkembang biak dengan cara membelah
diri (secara mitosis). Selain itu sel juga mengandung
materi genetik, yaitu materi penentu sifat-sifat mahluk
hidup, maka sifat mahluk hidup dapat diwariskan kepada
keturunannya. Setiap sel, pada tahap tertentu dalam
hidupnya, mengandung DNA sebagai materi yang dapat
diwariskan dan mengarahkan aktivitas sel tersebut.
 STRUKTUR MIKROORGANISME

• Sel terdiri atas dua tipe, yaitu sel prokariotik dan sel
eukariotik. Kedua tipe sel secara kimiawi adalah
serupa, yakni sama-sama memiliki asam nukleat,
protein, lipid, dan karbohidrat. Kedua tipe sel tersebut
juga menggunakan reaksi kimia yang sama untuk
memetabolisme makanan, membentuk protein, dan
menyimpan energi. Perbedaan sel prokariotik dari sel
eukariotik adalah struktur dinding sel, membran sel,
serta tidak adanya organel, yaitu struktur seluler yang
terspesialisasi yang memiliki fungsi-fungsi spesifik
 SEL PROKARIOTIK

• Sel prokariotik secara struktural lebih sederhana dan hanya

ditemukan pada organisme bersel satu dan berkoloni, yaitu
bakteri dan archaea. Dapat dikatakan sel prokariotik
sebagai suatu molekul yang dikelilingi oleh membran dan
dinding sel karena tidak mempunyai organel sel, tetapi
mempunyai sistem membran dalam dinding selnya.
• Suatu sel prokariotik terdiri atas DNA, sitoplasma, dan
suatu struktur permukaan termasuk membran plasma dan
komponen dinding sel, kapsul, dan lapisan lendir (slime
layer). Ada sebagian sel prokariotik yang mempunyai
pigmen fotosintesis seperti ditemukan pada Cyanobakteria.
 SEL EUKARIOTIK

• Sel eukariotik mengandung organel seperti nukleus, mitokondria, kloroplas,

retikulum endoplasma (RE), badan golgi, lisosom, vakuola, peroksisom, dan lain-
lain. Organel dan komponen lain berada pada sitosol, yang bersama dengan
nukleus disebut protoplasma.

• Ukuran mikroorganisme. Semua makhluk yang berukuran beberapa mikron atau

lebh kecil disebut mikroorganisme. Jadi satuan ukuran yang dipakai untuk
makhluk yang sangat kecil atau istilah lain jasad renik adalah mikron (µ) atau
milimikron (mµ). Untuk lebih jelasnya, perhatikan ukuran panjang berikut:

• 1 meter (m) = 1000 milimeter (mm)

• 1 mm = 1000 mikron (µ)
• 1 µ= 1000 milimikron (mµ)
•  
• Ukuran mikroorganisme tergantung jenis dan fase pertumbuhan, dan
pengukurannya dilakukan dengan okuler mikrometer dan obyek mikrometer.
 Kenalan dengan bakteri yuk....

WHAT?

Bakteri itu apa? Berasal dari bahasa Yunani

Bakterion yang artinya batang kecil

WHO+WHEN?
Siapa penemunya?
Anthony Van Leuwenhoek
Kapan?
1684
 WHERE ?

Q :Dimana bisa ketemu bakteri ?

A : Dimana-mana (kosmopolit)

Bakteri hidup di air,tanah,laut,udara dan di

makanan. Umumnya terdapat sekitar 40 juta sel
bakteri setiap 1 gram tanah dan 1 juta sel bakteri
dalam 1 mili liter air tawar. Diperkirakan terdapat 5
nonilion (5x1030 ) bakteri di seluruh dunia. Tubuh
kita juga merupakan rumah bagi bakteri terutama
kulit dan sistem pencernaan.
 KLASIFIKASI BAKTERI

Archaebacteria Eubacteria

Kelompok bakteri yang lebih

dikenal dengan bakteri purba
(primitif). Kelompok bakteri
Hidup di lingkungan ekstrim
pada sejarah evolusi bumi sejati
sehingga banyak anggotanya
sudah punah dan menjadi fosil
 MORFOLOGI BAKTERI
Bentuk sel bakteri:

Bulat (coccus): Batang (basil): Spiral:

– Monococcus – Monobasil – Spiral
– Diplococcus – Diplobasil – Vibrio
– Streptococcus – Streptobasil – Spirochaeta
– Stafilococcus
– Coccobasil
– Tetracoccus
– Sarkina
 MORFOLOGI BAKTERI

monococcus diplococcus tetracoccus

streptococcus stafilococcus sarkina

 MORFOLOGI BAKTERI

coccobasil monobasil
vibrio

diplobasil spiral

streptobasil spirochaeta
Escerichia coli Chlamydia Leptospira
STRUKTUR BAKTERI
No Struktur Keterangan

1 Dinding sel Tersusun dari peptidoglikan. Dinding sel berfungsi

sebagai pelindung dan pemberi bentuk bakteri.

2 Membran Adalah membran yang menyelubungi sitoplasma,

plasma tersusun dari lapisan fosfolipid dan protein.
Membran plasma berfungsi untuk mengatur
pertukaran zat antara sel dengan lingkungannya.
3 Ribosom Tersusun dari protein dan DNA. Ribosom berfungsi
pada saat sintesis protein.
4 Nukleoid Berfungsi sebagai pembawa sifat genetik yang
esensial.
5 Plasmid Berfungsi sebagai pembawa sifat genetik tidak
esensial
6 Sitoplasma Tempat terjadinya reaksi metabolik
No Struktur Keterangan

7 Flagelum Tersusun dari protein. Flagelum berfungsi sebagai alat gerak

bakteri.
8 Fimbria Struktur sejenis pilus namun lebih pendek daripada pilus.
Fimbria berfungsi sebagai alat pelekatan pada substrat
maupun antarsel.

9 Pilus Tersusun dari protein. Pilus berfungsi sebagai alat pelekat antar
sel dan sebagai alat penghubung saat konjugasi.

10 Kapsul Lapisan di luar dinding sel. Tersusun dari polisakarida dan air.
Kapsul berfungsi sebagai pelindung bakteri dari kekeringan,
cadangan makanan, sebagai pertahanan bakteri dari sel-sel
fagosit.

11 Endospora Mengandung sedikit sitoplasma, materi genetik, dan ribosom.

Dinding endospora tebal tersusun dari protein. Endospora
berfungsi sebagai pertahanan diri terhadap lingkungan yang
tidak menguntungkan.
 PEWARNAAN MIKROORGANISME
• Sebagian besar mikroorganisme tidak berwarna, maka
untuk dapat melakukan pengamatan di bawah mikroskop
cahaya, diperlukan pewarnaan mikroorganisme dengan
pewarna tertentu. Pewarnaan mikrooganisme pada
dasarnya adalah prosedur mewarnai mikroorganisme
dengan zat warna yang dapat menonjolkan struktur
tertentu dari mikroorganisme yang ingin diamati.
• Teknik pengecatan Gram dikembangkan oleh Hans
Christian Gram (dokter berkebangsaan
Denmark, 1884). Pengecatan Gram merupakan salah satu
langkah awal mengidentifikasi sel
bakteri yang memisahkan bakteri menjadi 2 kelompok
yaitu bakteri Gram positif (berwarna
ungu/biru) dan bakteri Gram negatif (berwarna merah)
 STRUKTUR DINDING SEL BAKTERI
• Bakteri dapat dibagi menjadi dua kelompok berdasarkan pewarnaan
dengan pewarnaan Gram, bakteri Gram positif tetap diwarnai dengan
kristal violet pada pencucian, Gram negatif tidak. Semua bakteri memiliki
membran sel dimana fosforilasi oksidatif terjadi (karena tidak ada
mitokondria). Di luar membran sel adalah dinding sel yang kaku dan
melindungi sel dari lisis osmotik. Pada bakteri Gram positif mengandung
banyak lapisan peptidoglikan yang membentuk struktur tebal dan kaku, dan
asam teikoat (techoic acid) yang mengandung alkohol (gliserol atau ribitol)
dan fosfat. Dinding sel bakteri Gram negatif mengandung satu atau
beberapa lapis peptidoglikan dan membran luar, tidak mengandung asam
teikoat, dan karena hanya mengandung sejumlah kecil peptidoglikan, maka
dinding sel bakteri Gram negatif relatif lebih tahan terhadap kerusakan
mekanis. Bakteri Gram negatif memiliki membran luar tambahan.
Membran luar adalah hambatan utama dalam permeabilitas bakteri Gram
negatif. Ruang antara membran dalam dan luar dikenal sebagai ruang
periplasmic. Bakteri Gram negatif menyimpan enzim degradatif dalam
ruang periplasma. Bakteri Gram positif kekurangan ruang periplasmic,
melainkan mereka mengeluarkan exoenzymes dan melakukan pencernaan
ekstraseluler. Pencernaan diperlukan karena molekul besar tidak dapat
dengan mudah melintasi membran luar (jika ada) atau membran sel.
Figure 27.3

(a) Gram-positive bacteria: peptidoglycan traps crystal violet. (b) Gram-negative bacteria: crystal violet is easily rinsed
away, revealing red dye.
Gram-positive Gram-negative
bacteria bacteria

Carbohydrate portion
of lipopolysaccharide

Peptido- Outer
Cell
glycan membrane
wall Cell
layer
Peptido-
wall
Plasma glycan
membrane layer
Plasma membrane
10 m
 STRUKTUR DAN FUNGSI MEMBRAN PLASMA
• Membran plasma (inner membrane) adalah struktur tipis di sebelah dalam dinding
sel dan menutup sitoplasma sel. Membran plasma tersusun atas fosfolipid berlapis
ganda dan protein, membentuk model mosaik cairan. Membran plasma berfungsi
sebagai sekat selektif material yang ada di dalam dan di luar sel. Materi yang
melewati membran plasma yakni makromolekul dan mikromolekul. Membran
plasma juga berfungsi memecah nutrien dan memproduksi energi. Pada beberapa
bakteri, pigmen, dan enzim yang terlibat dalam fotosintesis ditemukan pada
membran plasma yang melipat ke arah sitoplasma (kromotofor atau tilakoid).
• Pergerakan material mikromolekul melewati membran plasma dapat berlangsung
satu arah (synport) maupun saling berlawanan (antiport) serta melalui beberapa
proses transport aktif dan pasif. Proses pasif (passive transport) meliputi difusi
sederhana, difusi dipermudah, dan osmosis). Pergerakan makromolekul melewati
membran plasma terjadi melalui proses endositosis yaitu pengangkutan
makromolekul ke dalam sel, eksositosis yaitu pengangkutan makromolekul ke luar
sel, dan pertunasan (budding).
 STRUKTUR FUNGSI SPORA/ENDOSPORA
• Ensdospora (resting sel) yaitu struktur dengan dinding tebal dan
lapisan tambahan pada dinding sel bakteri yang dibentuk di sebelah
dalam membran sel. Endospora berfungsi sebagai pertahanan sel
bakteri terhadap panas ekstrim, kondisi kurang air dan paparan
bahan kimia serta radiasi. Hanya ada dua genus bakteri dengan
kemampuan membentuk struktur khusus berupa endospora yakni
Bacillus dan Clostridium yang bersifat Gram positif. Endospora
terbentuk selama kondisi lingkungan tidak memungkinkan bakteri
pembentuknya bertahan hidup. Apabila kondisi lingkungan kembali
memungkinkan untuk hidup endospora akan berkecambah dan
menjadi sel bakteri vegetatif yang berkembang biak secara normal.
Struktur endospora terdiri atas inti, kortek, dan selubung (coat).
Figure 27.9

Endospore
Coat

0.3 m
• Proses pembentukan endospora dalam sel vegetatif dikenal proses sporulasi
atau sporogenesis. Proses sporulasi dimulai dengan replikasi kromosom
bakteri, dan sebagian membran sitoplasma menonjol ke arah dalam dan
terpisah membentuk septum bakal spora. Septum bakal spora ini
merupakan membran lapis ganda yang mengelilingi kromosom dan
sitoplasma. Selanjutnya terbentuk dinding tebal peptidoglikan diantara dua
lapis membran dan selubung spora (protein) mengelilingi sisi luar membran.
Selubung protein inilah mengakibatkan adanya resistensi endospora
terhadap berbagai bahan kimia. Ketika endospora masak, dinding sel
vegetatif hancur, sehingga sel mati, dan endospora dilepaskan. Endospora
kembali ke bentuk vegetatif melalui germinasi yang dipacu oleh tekanan fisik
atau kerusakan kimia pada selubung endospora. Selanjutnya enzim
endospora akan memecah lapisan tambahan yang mengeliligi endospora, air
memasuki sel dan proses metabolisme kembali aktif.
 What is microbiology
Study of Micro-organisms: Organisms that EXIST as Single
Cells or cell clusters and must be viewed individually with the
aid of a Microscope

1. EXIST (Webster definition)To continue to be, have life; live

HALLMARKS OF LIFE
1. METABOLISM (nutrient uptake, biomass, waste output)
2. DIFFERENTIATION (Bacillus spp. Caulobacter)
3. REPRODUCTION (binary fission)
4. COMMUNICATION (Pseudomonas aeruginosa)
5. EVOLUTION (antibiotic resistance, pathogens)
 2. KEYWORD single CELLS
(OR cell clusters)

CHARACTERISTICS THAT MICROORGANISMS HAVE THAT

MAKE THEM TRUE CELLS

1. CELL MEMBRANE –barrier that separates the inside of

the cell from the outside
2. NUCLEUS OR NUCLEIOD – location of genetic
information (DNA)
3. CYTOPLASM –location of the machinery for cell growth
and function
4. MACROMOLECULES – proteins, nucleic acids, lipids,
polysaccharides
 . KEYWORD exist as SINGLE cells
3
(OR cell clusters)

We are multicellular creatures—made up of many cells

What makes one of our cells different from a microbial cell??

A single microbial cell can have an independent

existence—our
specialized cells need to interact with other cells in
order to carry
out their cellular functions for the good of the entire
organism.
 What organisms are considered to be
microbial cells and studied in microbiology
1. BACTERIA
2. FUNGI
3. ALGAE
4. PROTOZOA
5. Viruses(although not a cellular entity but an
intracellular pathogen)
6. Prions (a biochemical anomaly—misfolded proteins)
7. Helminths Worms (multicellular)
Phylogenetic classification of micro-organisms
(new school)

Eukaryotic
Algae
Prokaryotic Fungi
Eubacteria Archaeabacteria Protozoa

Universal Ancestor
 Phylogenetic classification of micro-organisms
EUBACTERIA most abundant of the bacteria found in soil, water and animal
digestive tracts

ARCHAEACTERIA live in extreme conditions (temperature, pH etc) mostly

anaerobic (unable to live in the presence of oxygen)

EUKARYOTES
algae: live in soil and water, contains chlorophyll for
photosynthesis, has a cell wall

fungi: yeast, molds. Lack chlorophyll and obtains energy from

organic compounds in soil and water, has a cell wall

protozoa: colorless, lacks a cell wall, ingests other

organisms or organic particles
 Major Differences between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic micro-organisms
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1. Nonmembrane bound 1. Membrane bound nucleus
nucleiod region containing DNA
2. DNA-one circular molecule 2. DNA-linear molecules arranged
one chromosome to form several chromosomes
3. Haploid-One copy of a gene 3. Diploid-Two copies of a gene
4. Plasma membrane does not 4. Plasma membrane contains
contain sterols sterols
5. Reproduction—simple binary 5. Reproduction—meiosis and
fission mitosis
6. Presence of membrane bound
organelles such as chloroplasts
and mitochondria
 Why study Microbiology ??

Microbiology as a BASIC Science

Bacteria and yeast are useful in studying molecular biology, biochemistry and
genetics
--reproduce rapidly
--are genetically (DNA) and biochemically more simple than higher order
organisms
--working with bacteria and yeast for understanding life processes has no
ethical ramifications

Microbiology as an APPLIED Science

Medicine—Vaccine development, production of antibiotics,
production of important biological enzymes (insulin)
Industry—Production of beer, wine, cheeses and yogurt
Agriculture—maintenance of soil fertility/digestion in cattle
Ecology—Bioremediation—microorganisms that degrade
toxic waste materials
Chapter 27

Bacteria and Archaea

Which are more highly
evolved…
humans or bacteria?
 What are the conditions required
for life?

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.1

Bacteria redefine our condition standards

 Prokaryotes can be extremophiles
• Prokaryotes thrive almost everywhere, including places
too acidic, salty, cold, or hot for most other organisms
Prokaryotes are prolific
• There are more in a handful of fertile soil than the
number of people who have ever lived
• You exchange 250 species during a kiss
• When you share headphones, you increase your
bacteria population by 700x

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Video: Tubeworms
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 27.1: Structural and functional adaptations
contribute to prokaryotic success

• As is always the case, forms fits the function

• The three most common shapes are spheres

(cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.2

1 m
1 m

3 m
(a) Spherical (b) Rod-shaped (c) Spiral
Figure 27.UN03

Fimbriae
Cell wall

Circular
chromosome
Capsule

Sex pilus

Internal organization

Flagella
Cell-Surface Structures

• An important feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is

their cell wall, which maintains cell shape, protects
the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic
environment
– Eukaryote cell walls are made of cellulose or chitin
– Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a network of
sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 SIMPLE IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA
• Scientists use the Gram stain to classify
bacteria by cell wall composition
– Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with
external peptidoglycan
– Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan,
and its internal
– Archaea contain polysaccharides and proteins but
lack peptidoglycan

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.3

(a) Gram-positive bacteria: peptidoglycan traps crystal violet. (b) Gram-negative bacteria: crystal violet is easily rinsed
away, revealing red dye.
Gram-positive Gram-negative
bacteria bacteria

Carbohydrate portion
of lipopolysaccharide

Peptido- Outer
Cell
glycan membrane
wall Cell
layer
Peptido-
wall
Plasma glycan
membrane layer
Plasma membrane
10 m
 • Many antibiotics (e.g. penicillin) target peptidoglycan
and damage bacterial cell walls
• Gram-negative bacteria are more likely to be
antibiotic resistant, which is too bad because they are
typically more dangerous

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.4

Bacterial
Bacterial capsule
cell wall

Tonsil
cell

200 nm
 • A polysaccharide or protein layer called a capsule
covers many prokaryotes
• Some prokaryotes have fimbriae, which allow them
to stick to their substrate or other individuals in a
colony
• Pili (or sex pili) are longer than fimbriae and allow
prokaryotes to exchange DNA

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.5

Fimbriae

1 m
Motility

• In a heterogeneous environment, many bacteria exhibit taxis,

the ability to move toward or away from a stimulus (vs. kinesis
– random)
• Chemotaxis is the movement toward or away from a chemical
stimulus
• Can travel up to 50 body lengths/sec. (for humans, 190 mi./hr.)

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Video: Oscillatoria
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Video: Prokaryotic Flagella (Salmonella typhimurium)
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 27.6

Flagellum

Filament 20 nm

Hook
Cell wall Motor

Plasma Peptidoglycan
membrane Rod layer
Figure 27.6a

20 nm

Hook

Motor
Evolutionary Origins of Bacterial Flagella

• Bacterial flagella are composed of a motor,

hook, and filament
• Flagella likely evolved as existing proteins
were added to an ancestral secretory system
• Therefore this is an example of exaptation

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Internal Organization and DNA

• Prokaryotic cells usually lack complex

compartmentalization (i.e. organelles)
• Some prokaryotes do have specialized membranes
that perform metabolic functions
– These are usually infoldings of the plasma membrane

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.7

0.2 m 1 m

Respiratory
membrane

Thylakoid
membranes

(a) Aerobic prokaryote (b) Photosynthetic prokaryote

 DNA
• Most of the genome consists of a circular
chromosome
• The chromosome is not surrounded by a
membrane; it is located in the nucleoid region
• Some species of bacteria also have smaller
rings of DNA called plasmids

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.8

Chromosome Plasmids

1 m
 • Prokaryotic ribosomes are small and slightly different
– Targeting these allow the use some antibiotics (e.g.
erythromycin) to inhibit bacterial growth without harming
eukaryotic cells

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Reproduction and Adaptation

• Key features of prokaryotic reproduction:

1. They are small
2. They reproduce by binary fission (every 1–3
hours)
3. They have short generation times

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 They can survive in harsh conditions
• They have survived 3.5 by of variability
• Many prokaryotes form metabolically inactive endospores, which can remain viable in harsh conditions
for centuries, including boiling
– Endospores are dehydrated layered structures containing only the chromosome
– Researchers revived a 250 million year old bacteria, Bacillus permians, that had been in salt crystals

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.9

Endospore
Coat

0.3 m
Figure 27.10
EXPERIMENT
Daily serial transfer
0.1 mL
(population sample)

Old tube New tube

(discarded (9.9 mL
after growth
transfer) medium)

RESULTS
(relative to ancestral population)

1.8
Population growth rate

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000

Generation
Concept 27.2: Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic
recombination promote genetic diversity in prokaryotes

• Prokaryotes have considerable genetic variation

• Three factors contribute to this genetic diversity:
– Rapid reproduction (1 reproducing cell could outweigh Earth in 2 days)
– Mutation
– Genetic recombination

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Rapid Reproduction and Mutation

• Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission, and

offspring cells are generally identical
• Mutation rates during binary fission are low, but
because of rapid reproduction, mutations can
accumulate rapidly in a population
– 9 million E.coli mutations per day per human host
– High diversity  rapid evolution

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Genetic Recombination

• Prokaryotic genetic recombination from different

individuals can be brought together by transformation,
transduction, and conjugation

• Movement of genes among individuals from different

species is called horizontal gene transfer

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Transformation and Transduction

• A prokaryotic cell can take up and incorporate foreign

DNA from the surrounding environment in a process
called transformation
• Transduction is the movement of genes between
bacteria by bacteriophages (viruses that infect
bacteria)

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.11-1

Phage
A B
Donor cell

A B
Figure 27.11-2

Phage
A B
Donor cell

A B

A
Figure 27.11-3

Phage
A B
Donor cell

A B

A

Recombination
A

A B Recipient
cell
Figure 27.11-4

Phage
A B
Donor cell

A B

A

Recombination
A

A B Recipient
cell

A B Recombinant cell
Conjugation and Plasmids

• Conjugation is the process where genetic material is

transferred between prokaryotic cells
• In bacteria, the DNA transfer is one way
• A donor cell attaches to a recipient by a pilus, pulls it
closer, and transfers DNA
• A piece of DNA called the F factor is required for the
production of pili

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.12

1 m

Sex pilus
 The F Factor as a Plasmid

• Cells containing the F plasmid function as DNA

donors during conjugation (one-way delivery)

• The F factor is transferable during conjugation

• The recipient becomes a recombinant bacterium,
with DNA from two different cells

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.13

F plasmid Bacterial chromosome

F cell
(donor) F cell

Mating
bridge

F cell F cell
(recipient) Bacterial
chromosome
(a) Conjugation and transfer of an F plasmid

Hfr cell
A A
(donor) A

F factor A A A

Recombinant
F cell A A A A
F bacterium
(recipient)
(b) Conjugation and transfer of part of an Hfr bacterial chromosome
Why you should resist hand sanitizer, maybe?

• R plasmids carry genes for antibiotic

resistance
• Through natural selection, the fraction of
bacteria with genes for resistance increases in
a population exposed to antibiotics
• What is the outcome?

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Concept 27.3: Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations
have evolved in prokaryotes

• Prokaryotes can be categorized by how they obtain energy and

carbon
– Autotrophs require CO2 as a carbon source
• Photoautotrophs obtain energy from light
• Chemoautotrophs obtain energy from chemicals

– Chemoheterotrophs require an organic nutrient to make organic

compounds, energy from sugar ingestion
• Chemolitho(hetero)trophs have been found miles under Earth
– Photoheterotrophs: ?

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism

• Prokaryotic metabolism varies with respect to O2

– Obligate aerobes require O2 for cellular respiration
– Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2 and use
fermentation or anaerobic respiration
– Facultative anaerobes can survive with or without O2

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Nitrogen Metabolism

• Why is nitrogen important to living things?

• How do animals ingest N?

• In nitrogen fixation, some prokaryotes

convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to
ammonia (NH3)

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Metabolic Cooperation

• Cooperation between prokaryotes allows them to

use environmental resources they could not use as
individual cells
• In the cyanobacterium Anabaena, photosynthetic
cells and nitrogen-fixing cells called heterocysts (or
heterocytes) exchange metabolic products

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Concept 27.4: Molecular systematics is illuminating
prokaryotic phylogeny

• Applying molecular systematics to the

investigation of prokaryotic phylogeny has
produced dramatic results, including the
splitting of prokaryotes into bacteria and
archaea

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.15

Eukarya
Domain
Eukaryotes

Korarchaeotes

Domain Archaea
Euryarchaeotes

Crenarchaeotes

UNIVERSAL Nanoarchaeotes
ANCESTOR
Proteobacteria

Domain Bacteria
Chlamydias

Spirochetes

Cyanobacteria

Gram-positive
bacteria
 • List the reasons why mapping a clear path for
prokaryotes on the tree of life is difficult

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Archaea

• Archaea share certain traits with bacteria and other

traits with eukaryotes

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.UN01

Eukarya
Archaea
Bacteria
Table 27.2
 • Some archaea live in extreme environments and are
called extremophiles
– Extreme halophiles live in highly saline environments
– Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot environments

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.16
 • Methanogens live in swamps and marshes and
produce methane as a waste product
– Methanogens are strict anaerobes and are poisoned by O2
• In recent years, genetic prospecting has revealed
many new groups of archaea, in ice, deep
underground, etc.
– Some of these may offer clues to the early evolution of life
on Earth

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bacteria

• Bacteria include the vast majority of prokaryotes of

which most people are aware
• Diverse nutritional types are scattered among the
major groups of bacteria

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.UN02

Eukarya
Archaea
Bacteria
 Proteobacteria

• These gram-negative bacteria include

photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, and
heterotrophs
• Some are anaerobic, and others aerobic

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17-a

Subgroup: Alpha Proteobacteria Subgroup: Beta Proteobacteria

Alpha
Beta
Gamma Proteo-
Delta bacteria

1 m
2.5 m
Epsilon

Rhizobium (arrows) inside a root Nitrosomonas (colorized TEM)

cell of a legume (TEM)

Subgroup: Gamma Proteobacteria Subgroup: Delta Proteobacteria Subgroup: Epsilon Proteobacteria

200 m

300 m

2 m
Thiomargarita namibiensis Fruiting bodies of Chondromyces Helicobacter pylori (colorized TEM)
containing sulfur wastes (LM) crocatus, a myxobacterium (SEM)
 Subgroup: Alpha Proteobacteria

• Many species are closely associated with eukaryotic

hosts
• Scientists hypothesize that mitochondria evolved
from aerobic alpha proteobacteria through
endosymbiosis
• Example: Rhizobium, which forms root nodules in
legumes and fixes atmospheric N2
• Example: Agrobacterium, which produces tumors in
plants and is used in genetic engineering

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17b

Subgroup: Alpha Proteobacteria

2.5 m
Rhizobium (arrows) inside a root
cell of a legume (TEM)
 Subgroup: Beta Proteobacteria
• Example: the soil bacterium Nitrosomonas, which
converts NH4+ to NO2–

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17c

Subgroup: Beta Proteobacteria

1 m
Nitrosomonas (colorized TEM)
 Subgroup: Gamma Proteobacteria
• Examples include sulfur bacteria such as Chromatium
and pathogens such as Legionella, Salmonella, and
Vibrio cholerae
• Escherichia coli resides in the intestines of many
mammals and is not normally pathogenic

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17d

Subgroup: Gamma Proteobacteria

200 m
Thiomargarita namibiensis
containing sulfur wastes (LM)
 Subgroup: Delta Proteobacteria
• Example: the slime-secreting myxobacteria

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17e

Subgroup: Delta Proteobacteria

300 m
Fruiting bodies of Chondromyces
crocatus, a myxobacterium (SEM)
 Subgroup: Epsilon Proteobacteria
• This group contains many pathogens including
Campylobacter, which causes blood poisoning, and
Helicobacter pylori, which causes stomach ulcers

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17f

Subgroup: Epsilon Proteobacteria

2 m
Helicobacter pylori (colorized TEM)
Figure 27.17-b

Chlamydias Spirochetes

2.5 m

5 m
Chlamydia (arrows) inside an Leptospira, a spirochete
animal cell (colorized TEM) (colorized TEM)

Cyanobacteria Gram-Positive Bacteria

2 m
5 m
40 m

Oscillatoria, a filamentous Streptomyces, the source of many Hundreds of mycoplasmas covering

cyanobacterium antibiotics (SEM) a human fibroblast cell (colorized SEM)
 Chlamydias
• These bacteria are parasites that live within animal
cells
• Chlamydia trachomatis causes blindness and
nongonococcal urethritis by sexual transmission

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17g

Chlamydias

2.5 m
Chlamydia (arrows) inside an
animal cell (colorized TEM)
 Spirochetes
• These bacteria are helical heterotrophs
• Some are parasites, including Treponema pallidum,
which causes syphilis, and Borrelia burgdorferi,
which causes Lyme disease

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17h

Spirochetes

5 m
Leptospira, a spirochete
(colorized TEM)
Cyanobacteria

• These are photoautotrophs that generate O2

• Plant chloroplasts likely evolved from cyanobacteria
by the process of endosymbiosis

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17i

Cyanobacteria

40 m
Oscillatoria, a filamentous
cyanobacterium
 Gram-Positive Bacteria
• Gram-positive bacteria include
– Actinomycetes, which decompose soil
– Bacillus anthracis, the cause of anthrax
– Clostridium botulinum, the cause of botulism
– Some Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, which
can be pathogenic
– Mycoplasms, the smallest known cells

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.17j

Gram-Positive Bacteria

5 m
Streptomyces, the source of many
antibiotics (SEM)
Figure 27.17k

Gram-Positive Bacteria

2 m
Hundreds of mycoplasmas covering
a human fibroblast cell (colorized SEM)
Concept 27.5: Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the
biosphere

• Why couldn’t life survive without prokaryotes?

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Prokaryotes play a major role in the recycling of
chemical elements between the living and
nonliving components of ecosystems
– Primary producers (base of food chain)
– Frees oxygen from carbon dioxide
– Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as
decomposers, free nutrients by breaking down
dead organisms and waste
– Prokaryotes can increase the availability of
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for plant
growth

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.18

1.0
Uptake of K by plants (mg)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Seedlings grow-
ing in the lab
0
No Strain 1 Strain 2 Strain 3
bacteria
Soil treatment
Ecological Interactions

• Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in which two

species live in close contact: a larger host and smaller
symbiont
• Prokaryotes often form symbiotic relationships with
larger organisms

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 • In mutualism, both symbiotic organisms benefit
• In commensalism, one organism benefits while
neither harming nor helping the other in any
significant way
• In parasitism, an organism called a parasite harms
but does not kill its host
• Parasites that cause disease are called pathogens

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.19
Concept 27.6: Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful
impacts on humans

• Some prokaryotes are human pathogens, but others

have positive interactions with humans

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Mutualistic Bacteria

• Human intestines are home to about 500–1,000

species of bacteria
• Many of these are mutalists and break down food
that is undigested by our intestines

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pathogenic Bacteria

• Prokaryotes cause about half of all human

diseases
– For example, Lyme disease is caused by a
bacterium and carried by ticks

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.20

5 m
 • Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause disease by
releasing exotoxins or endotoxins
• Exotoxins are secreted and cause disease even if the
prokaryotes that produce them are not present (e.g.
cholera, botulism)
• Endotoxins are released only when bacteria die and
their cell walls break down (e.g. Salmonella)

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 • Some pathogenic bacteria are weaponized for
bioterrorism
:(

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Prokaryotes can be really helpful tools

• Experiments using prokaryotes have led to important

advances in DNA technology
– For example, E. coli is used in gene cloning
– For example, Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used to
produce transgenic plants
• Bacteria can now be used to make natural plastics

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 • Prokaryotes are the principal agents in
bioremediation, the use of organisms to remove
pollutants from the environment
• Bacteria can be engineered to produce vitamins,
antibiotics, and hormones
• Bacteria are also being engineered to produce
ethanol from waste biomass

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 27.21

(a)
(c)

(b)
Are we merely bacteria in a human vehicle?

How could you make that case?

Are we merely bacteria in a human vehicle?

There are 50 trillion cells in each human body

Are we merely bacteria in a human vehicle?

There are 50 trillion cells in each human body

There are 500 trillion bacteria in each human body
and the question is asked again,

which are more highly

evolved…
humans or bacteria?
Figure 27.UN04
Figure 27.UN05
• Definisi pertumbuhan bakteri,
• pembelahan biner,
• definisi waktu generasi,
• fase pertumbuhan bakteri,
• parameter pengukuran pertumbuhan bakteri,
• pengaruh faktor lingkungan pada pertumbuhan
bakteri