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 Categories of Variables
Factors outside of the classroom
Context that provide the environment for
the teaching and learning process
Qualities/characteristics of teachers
Input
and students that they bring with
them to the classroom experience
Teacher and student behaviors in the
Classroom classroom as well as some other
Processes variables such as classroom climate
and teacher/ student relationships
Output Measures of student learning taken
apart from the normal instructional
process
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

One of the major category of variables, Input,

refers to descriptions of teachers and students
prior to their coming into the classroom.

There are again two important subcategories:

[ Teacher Characteristics and
[ Student Characteristics.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process
The most important teacher characteristic (in
terms of predicting how well teachers will
perform in the classroom as well as student
achievement) seems to be the teacher's values
and belief or more particularly Teacher Efficacy
(Ashton, 1984). This variable is a measure of the
teacher's belief that students can learn and that
he/she can teach.

Ashton, P. (1984, Sept/Oct.) Teacher efficacy: A motivational paradigm for

effective teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education. 28-32.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Proctor (1986) has developed a model of the

teaching/ learning process that highlights the
role of teacher expectations.

Proctor, C. (1984, March). Teacher expectations: A model for school improvement.

The Elementary School Journal, 469-481.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

There are a wide variety of Student

Characteristics that have been related to
classroom behavior and student achievement.
In general, research has shown that when time
available for learning (a context variable) is
held constant, as it is in most learning
environments in the United States, then a
student's intelligence or academic ability is the
best student characteristic variable that will
predict student achievement.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Vowever, researchers such as Bloom and his

colleagues (e.g, Anderson & Block, 1977; Bloom,
1971)* have shown that when time to learn is
allowed to vary, a student's prior knowledge is a
better student characteristic to predict student
achievement.

* Anderson, L., & Block, J. (1977). Mastery learning. In D. Treffinger, J. Davis, & R.
Ripple (eds.), Vandbook on teaching educational psychology. New York: Academic
Press.
* Bloom, B. (1971). Mastery learning. New York: Volt, Rinehart, & Winston, Inc.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process
Other student characteristics that have been
found to be important include:
[ Study habits,
[ Age,
[ Gender,
[ Motivation,
[ Learning Style,
[ Cognitive development,
[ Socioemotional development,
[ Moral and character development, and
[ Race/Ethnicity.
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Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

The final category is context. This category

includes all of those variables outside of the
classroom that have an impact on teacher and
student characteristics, classroom processes, and
output.

These variables describe the environment

within which teaching and learning takes place.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

The most immediate subcategories of context

variables include school characteristics and
school processes.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

School characteristics includes variables such as:

[ organizational structure and
[ school size.
School processes include factors related to
activities such as:
[ leadership,
[ supervisory practices, and
[ school climate.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

There are a wide variety of other context

variables that influence the teaching/learning
process. Some of the subcategories of these
variables include:
[ Vome,
[ Religious Institutions,
[ Peer Groups,
[ Community,
[ Society,
[ Culture, and
[ International Conditions.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Classroom Processes category includes all the

variables that would occur in the classroom.

There are three subcategories:

[ Teacher Behavior
[ Student Behavior
[ Other/Miscellaneous
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

The category of Teacher Behavior consists of all

the actions a teacher would make in the classroom
and includes three additional subcategories:
all of those activities a teacher
Planning might do to get ready to interact
with students in the classroom

Management controlling student behavior

Instruction guiding student learning

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process
Research has shown that only a small number of
individual teacher behavior variables actually
predict student achievement.*
[ Use of positive reinforcement
[ Cues and corrective feedback
[ Cooperative learning activities
[ Vigher-order questioning
[ Use of advance organizers
* Walberg, V. (1986). Synthesis of research on teaching. In M. Wittrock
(Ed.)., Vandbook of research on teaching (pp. 214-229). New York:
Macmillan.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

The category of Student Behavior includes all

of the actions a student would make in the
classroom and includes one very important
variable (at least in relationship to predicting
student achievement on standardized tests)
and that is Academic Learning Time.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Academic Learning Time is defined as

"the amount of time students are

successfully covering content that will be
tested´*

* Squires, D., Vuitt, W., & Segars, J. (1983). Effective classrooms

and schools: A research-based perspective. Washington, D.C.:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Academic Learning Time is composed of three

separate variables:

the percentage of the

Content Overlap content covered on the
test actually covered by
students in the classroom
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Academic Learning Time is composed of three

separate variables:

amount of time students

Engaged Time are actively involved in
the learning process
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Academic Learning Time is composed of three

separate variables:

extent to which students

Success accurately complete the
assignments they have been
given
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

There are a variety of other classroom factors

which have been related to student achievement
such as
[ classroom atmosphere and morale
and
[ the opportunity for students to engage in
leadership roles.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process
One of the most important concepts that has been
developed in educational psychology during the past
30 years is that classroom process variables are the
most direct link to student achievement.*

More specifically, the teacher's classroom behavior

(included in the categories of planning,
management and instruction) has a direct influence
on student classroom behavior (most importantly,
Academic Learning Time).
* Rosenshine, B. (1995). Advances in research on instruction. The Journal of
Educational Research, 88(5), 262-268.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process
Academic Learning Time, then, is the most direct
link to measures of student achievement.
Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Output is the most important category because the

variables in the rest of the categories are used to
predict or relate to the variables measured in this one.
Most of the time when we ask
"Vow well or how much has the student learned?´
we mean
"Vow well has the student done on a standardized
measure of student achievement in the basic skills
of Reading, Language Arts, and Mathematics?"
As we shall see, there are a variety of outcomes that
are important in today's world (such as cognitive
development and character) that are not presently
discussed when we talk about student learning.