Levels of Organization

1
Unit

Fundamentals of
Anatomy & Physiology
Frederic H. Martini

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by

Professor Albia Dugger, Miami–Dade College, Miami, FL
Professor Robert R. Speed, Ph.D., Wallace Community College, Dothan, AL

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Chapter 1: An Introduction to
Anatomy and Physiology
What is anatomy
and physiology?
 Anatomy

• Describes the structures of the body:

– what they are made of
– where they are located
– associated structures
 Physiology

• Is the study of:

– functions of anatomical structures
– individual and cooperative functions
 KEY CONCEPT

• All physiological functions are

performed by specific anatomical
structures
• These functions follow standard
physical and mechanical principles
 Specialties of Anatomy (1 of 3)

• Gross anatomy, or macroscopic

anatomy examines large, visible
structures:
– surface anatomy:
• exterior features
– regional anatomy:
• body areas
Specialties of Anatomy (2 of 3)
– systemic anatomy:
• groups of organs working together
– developmental anatomy:
• from egg (embryology) to maturity
– clinical anatomy:
• medical specialties
 Specialties of Anatomy (3 of 3)

• Microscopic anatomy examines cells

and molecules:
– cytology:
• cells and their structures
• cyt = cell
– histology:
• tissues and their structures
 Specialties of Physiology
• Cell physiology:
– processes within and between cells
• Special physiology:
– functions of specific organs
• Systemic physiology:
– functions of an organ system
• Pathological physiology:
– effects of diseases
How are living things
organized?
From Simple to Complex (1 of 3)

• Atoms:
– are the smallest chemical units
• Molecules:
– are a group of atoms working together
• Organelles:
– are a group of molecules working together
From Simple to Complex (2 of 3)
• Cells:
– are a group of organelles working together
• Tissues:
– are a group of similar cells working
together
• Organs:
– are a group of different tissues working
together
From Simple to Complex (3 of 2)

• Organ systems:
– are a group of organs working together
• Organism:
– is an individual
 Organizing a Muscle

• Protein molecules (chemical level)

• Protein filaments (organelle level)
• Muscle cells (cellular level)
• Cardiac muscle tissue (tissue level)
• Heart (organ level)
 KEY CONCEPT

• The body is divided into 11 organ

systems
• All organ systems work together
• Many organs work in more than 1 organ
system
 KEY CONCEPT
• Homeostasis: All body systems working
together to maintain a stable internal
environment
• Systems respond to external and
internal changes to function within a
normal range (body temperature, fluid
balance)
 KEY CONCEPT

• Failure to function within a normal

range results in disease
 Mechanisms of Regulation

• Autoregulation (intrinsic):
– automatic response in a cell, tissue, or
organ
• Extrinsic regulation:
– responses controlled by nervous and
endocrine systems
Maintaining Normal Limits

Figure 1–3
 Maintaining Normal Limits

• Receptor:
– receives the stimulus
• Control center:
– processes the signal and sends instructions
• Effector:
– carries out instructions
 Negative Feedback

• The response of the effector negates

the stimulus

Figure 1–4
 Positive Feedback

• The response of the effector reinforces

the stimulus

Figure 1–5
Working Together

Table 1–1
 Working Together

• Systems integration:
– systems work together to maintain
homeostasis
 KEY CONCEPT

• Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium:

– opposing forces are in balance
• Physiological systems work to restore
balance
• Failure results in disease or death
 What are the anatomical
terms used to describe body
sections, regions, and
relative positions?
Anatomical Landmarks

Figure 1–6
 Anatomical Landmarks

• Superficial characteristics:
– surface parts:
• names
• adjectives
 KEY CONCEPT

• Anatomical position:
– hands at sides, palms forward
• Supine:
– lying down, face up
• Prone:
– lying down, face down
 Quadrants and Regions (1 of 3)

• 4 abdominopelvic quadrants around

umbilicus

Figure 1–7a
 Quadrants and Regions (2 of 3)

• 9 abdominopelvic regions

Figure 1–7b
 Quadrants and Regions (3 of 3)

• Internal organs associated with

abdominopelvic regions

Figure 1–7c
Which Direction?

Figure 1–8
 Which Direction?

• Lateral:
– side view
• Frontal:
– front view
• Anatomical direction:
– refers to the patient’s left or right
3 Dimensions

Figure 1–9
 3 Dimensions

• Plane:
– a 3-dimensional axis
• Section:
– a slice parallel to a plane
 What are the major body
cavities and their subdivisions?
The Ventral Body Cavity

• divided by the
diaphragm into
the thoracic
cavity and the
abdominopelvic
cavity

Figure 1–10a
 Isolating the Organs

• Serous membranes:
– consist of parietal layer and visceral layer

Figure 1–10b
 Dividing the Cavities

• Thoracic cavity:
– divided by the mediastinum into 2 pleural
cavities

Figure 1–10c