TOTALITAS SAINS

Sains dan Pengelolaannya

 PENGANTAR
• Sains bersifat komplikatif karena ide tentang sains mencakup:
• Metode (philosophy of science)
• Organisasi (sociology of science)
• Events/kegiatan (history of science)
• Pendanaan (politics of science)
• Integrasi keseluruhan aspek ini menghasilkan deskripsi lengkap
tentang penelitian ilmiah (scientific research) yang
merepresentasikan Totalitas Sains dan konsep ini kemudian
diistilahkan sebagai Pengelolaan Sains
• Ide tentang pengelolaan sains sesungguhnya adalah cara praktis
yang berguna untuk menggambarkan sains itu sendiri
 TENTANG SAINS
• Sains dapat dilihat sebagai proses dan konten pemeriksaan (content
of inquiry) dari penelitian yang menanyakan dan menjawab
pertanyaan dasar tentang alam
• Penyelidikan tentang alam difokuskan pada pertanyaan: Apa yang
eksis di alam dan bagaimana cara mereka berinteraksi satu sama
lain?
• Dalam konteks ini, sains dapat dikarakterisasikan dengan 4 jenis
aktivitas yang bermuara pada pertanyaan
• Tersusun dari apa alam semesta?
• Bagaimana kita dapat mengetahuinya?
• Apa prosedur dan resources yang dibutuhkan?
• Mengapa sains bermanfaat bagi masyarakat?
 OF WHAT IS UNIVERSE
MADE?
• This is the basic question about nature.
• We can call this activity about the content of nature as
scientific content (ontology).
• Scientific content expresses the current state of knowledge in
science about the nature of the observable world.
 PROCEDURES AND
RESOURCES
• What procedures and resources are necessary to inquire into
nature, to use scientific epistemology?
• This is the basic question about the methodological approach
and organizational resources needed to conduct scientific
research.
• We can call this science administration (research).
• Science administration organizationally funds and/or
performs research in the methodological forms of scientific
inquiry – as research proposals.
 WHY IS SCIENCE USEFUL
TO SOCIETY?
• This is the basic question about the value of science to
human civilization.
• Science is practical (berguna) to society by providing a
knowledge base for technological innovation.
• We can call this scientific application (technology).
• Science administration organizationally funds and/or
performs the process of advancing knowledge in terms of
research tasks.
 HOW DO WE KNOW THIS?
• This is the basic question about method.
• Science now answers that question with the methods of
science in experimentally grounded theory.
• We can call this scientific method (epistemology).
• Scientific method proposes the proper philosophical
approach (methodology) as a set of research tasks in the
process of advancing knowledge
 ILLUSTRATION:
RUTHERFORD’S EXPERIMENT
ON THE STRUCTURE
OF THE ATOM
• Rutherford investigated radioactivity and was able to distinguish
between alpha, beta, and gamma rays in the radioactive
phenomena of atoms.
• He introduced the terms of “alpha” and “beta” radiation.
• J.J. Thomson suggested that the atom was made up of a
combination of electrons and protons.
• And he suggested a model of their arrangement, similar to that of
an English “plum pudding,” with electrons embedded like plums in
a positive pudding.
• It was this model that Rutherford intended to experimentally test.
• As a holder of a professorial chair in Manchester University,
Rutherford was given space and a budget to run a physics research
laboratory.
• Rutherford hired two research assistants in his laboratory and
assigned them the task of performing the experiment in 1909.
• They were Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden.
• The experiment was to look for the geometric structure of the
atom.
• How were the positive and negative charges in the atom spatially
arranged?
• In the experiment, Geiger and Marsden bombarded several metal foils
(including gold foil) with alpha particles.
• The experiment was performed in a darkened room under a low-
powered microscope.
• Geiger and Marsden watched for tiny flashes of light – as the
scattered particles struck a zinc sulfide scintillating screen (and the
screen gave off light when struck by a charged particle).
• Most of the particles penetrated the foils, passing through with some
absorbed in the foil.
• But once in about 8,000 times, the alpha particles bounced back from
the foil toward the source – as if these particles had hit a hard object
in the foil! This phenomenon was called a “back-scatter.”
• In 1911, Rutherford published his analysis of the alpha scattering as
the Rutherford model of the atom. His model looked like the model of
the solar system, with a core atomic nucleus (analogous to the sun)
orbited by particle-like electrons (analogous to planets).
• But later, it would be found that the atom was composed of a small
atomic nucleus surrounded by a cloud of wave-like electrons in orbits
• Yet even then Rutherford knew that an analogy of the atomic system
to the solar system was impossible because of the theory of
electromagnetism.
• Rutherford understood the model was geometrically correct but
physically impossible! In classical physics, an orbiting electron would
radiate away energy as electromagnetic radiation (light).
• Rutherford immediately understood that new physics would be
necessary, a new theory.
• The spatial model of an atom with electrons far-out and circling a
nucleus was experimentally correct, but not then theoretically
possible.
 METHODOLOGY AND
ORGANIZATION IN
RUTHERFORD’S EXPERIMENT
• In this case, Rutherford
1) methodologically conceived the experiment and
2) administered/managed the project as a research-team leader.
• Let us first look at the methodological issues.
• Methodologically, we saw Rutherford using the “scientific
method” as an experiment (alpha rays passing through a metal
foil).
• We can connect this modern idea of “scientific methods” with an
older philosophical idea of “epistemology.
• ” Epistemology is “knowledge of method.”
• An experiment can discriminate between two theories and
determine which theory is more accurate about nature.
• The back-scattering data from the experiment determined
that Rutherford’s model was more accurate than Thomson’s
model.
• Accurate theory of nature must be based upon (grounded) in
experimental observation of nature.
• Methodologically we saw in Rutherford’s experiment that there was a
prior scientific content upon which Rutherford based his research
(Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom).
• The modern idea of scientific content is that it accumulates over time
as the current state of knowledge of nature – scientific representation.
• Again we can connect this to an older philosophical idea of
“ontology.
• ” Ontology is the knowledge of the universe – of what “stuff ” is the
universe composed?
• This classical philosophical idea of ontology as the content of the
universe has now evolved into the modern idea of scientific
representation – expressing nature in the terms of a “scientific
paradigm.
• ” Nature is modern science’s term for the “observable universe” –
everything in the world that can be observed and studied.