EE 6331, Spring, 2009

Advanced Telecommunication

Zhu Han
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Class 22

Apr. 16th , 2009

 Outline
 Review
– Convolutional code
◆ Encoder
◆ Decoder: Viterbi decoding
– Turbo Code
– LDPC Code
– TCM modulation
 CDMA
 OFDM
 2G-3G-4G
 Exam2 until this class
 Project 2 due on the exam

ECE6331
 Example
 Convolutional encoder, k = 1, n = 2, L=2
– Convolutional encoder is a finite state machine (FSM)
processing information bits in a serial manner
– Thus the generated code is a function of input and the state of the
FSM
– In this (n,k,L) = (2,1,2) encoder each message bit influences a
span of C= n(L+1)=6 successive output bits = constraint length
C
– Thus, for generation of n-bit output, we require n shift registers in k
= 1 convolutional encoders

ECE6331
 Generator sequences

ECE6331
 Representing convolutional codes
compactly: code trellis and state diagram
Input state ‘1’
indicated by dashed line

State diagram
Code trellis

Shift register states

ECE6331
 Distance for some convolutional codes
 Lower the coding rate, larger the L, then larger the
distance

ECE6331
 Puncture Code
 A sequence of coded bits is punctured by deleting some of
the bits in the sequence according to some fixed rule.
 The resulting coding rate is increased. So a lower rate
code can be extended to a sequence of higher rate codes.

ECE6331
 correct:1+1+2+2+2=8;8 ⋅ ( −0.11) = −0.88
false:1+1+0+0+0=2;2 ⋅ ( −2.30) = −4.6
total path metric: − 5.48

The largest metric, verify

that you get the same result!
Note also the Hamming distances!

ECE6331
 The Viterbi algorithm
 Problem of optimum decoding is to find the minimum distance path
from the initial state back to initial state (below from S0 to S0). The
minimum distance is the sum of all path metrics
ln p ( y , x m ) = ∑ ∞j=0 ln p ( y j | xmj )
Decoder’s output sequence
Received code for the m:th path
sequence
that is maximized by the correct path
 Exhaustive maximum likelihood
method must search all the paths
in phase trellis (2k paths emerging/
entering from 2 L+1 states for
an (n,k,L) code)
 The Viterbi algorithm gets its
efficiency via concentrating into
survivor paths of the trellis

ECE6331
 The maximum likelihood path
Smaller accumulated
After register length L+1=3 metric selected
branch pattern begins to repeat

(1) (1)
1

(1)
(1)

(2)

1
(0)

(Branch Hamming distances

in parenthesis) First depth with two entries to the node

The decoded ML code sequence is 11 10 10 11 00 00 00 whose Hamming

distance to the received sequence is 4 and the respective decoded
sequence is 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 (why?). Note that this is the minimum distance path.
(Black circles denote the deleted branches, dashed lines: '1' was applied)
ECE6331
 Parallel Concatenated Codes
 Instead of concatenating in serial, codes can also be
concatenated in parallel.
 The original turbo code is a parallel concatenation of two
recursive systematic convolutional (RSC) codes.
– systematic: one of the outputs is the input.

Systematic Output
Input Encoder
#1
Interleaver

MUX
Parity
Output
Encoder
#2

ECE6331
 Iterative Decoding
 There is one decoder for each elementary encoder.
 Each decoder estimates the a posteriori probability (APP) of
each data bit.
 The APP’s are used as a priori information by the other
decoder.
 Decoding continues for a set number of iterations.
– Performance generally improves from iteration to iteration, but
follows a law of diminishing returns.
Deinterleaver
APP
APP
Interleaver
systematic Decoder Decoder
data #1 #2 hard bit
parity decisions
data DeMUX

Interleaver

ECE6331
Performance as a Function of Number of Iterations
 K=5, r=1/2, L=65,536
0
10

-1
10
1 iteration
-2
10

2 iterations
-3
10
BER

-4
10 6 iterations 3 iterations

-5
10 10 iterations

-6
10 18 iterations

-7
10
0.5 1 1.5 2
Eb/No in dB

ECE6331
 LDPC Introduction
 Low Density Parity Check (LDPC)
 History of LDPC codes
– Proposed by Gallager in his 1960 MIT Ph. D. dissertation
– Rediscovered by MacKay and Richardson/Urbanke in 1999
 Features of LDPC codes
– Performance approaching Shannon limit
– Good block error correcting performance
– Suitable for parallel implementation
 Advantages over turbo codes
– LDPC do not require a long interleaver
– LDPC’s error floor occurs at a lower BER
– LDPC decoding is not trellis based

ECE6331
 Pro and Con
 ADVANTAGES
– Near Capacity Performance .. Shannon’s Limit
– Some LDPC Codes perform better than Turbo Codes
– Trellis diagrams for Long Turbo Codes become very complex and
computationally elaborate … and make my head hurt !
– Low Floor Error
– Decoding in the Log Domain is quite fast.
 DISADVANTAGES
– Long time to Converge to Good Solution
– Very Long Code Word Lengths for good Decoding Efficiency
– Iterative Convergence is SLOW
◆ Takes ~ 1000 iterations to converge under standard conditions.
– Due to the above reason
transmission time increases
◆ i.e. encoding, transmission and decoding
– Hence Large Initial Latency
◆ (4086,4608) LPDC codeword has a latency of almost 2 hours
ECE6331
 Trellis Coded Modulation
1. Combine both encoding and modulation. (using
Euclidean distance only)
2. Allow parallel transition in the trellis.
3. Has significant coding gain (3~4dB) without bandwidth
compromise.
4. Has the same complexity (same amount of computation,
same decoding time and same amount of memory
needed).
5. Has great potential for fading channel.
6. Widely used in Modem

ECE6331
 Set Partitioning
1. Branches diverging from the same state must have the largest distance.
2. Branches merging into the same state must have the largest distance.
3. Codes should be designed to maximize the length of the shortest error
event path for fading channel (equivalent to maximizing diversity).
4. By satisfying the above two criterion, coding gain can be increased.

ECE6331
 Spread-spectrum transmission
 Three advantages over fixed spectrum
– Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to noise and
interference. The process of re-collecting a spread signal
spreads out noise and interference, causing them to recede into
the background.
– Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. A Frequency-
Hop spread-spectrum signal sounds like a momentary noise
burst or simply an increase in the background noise for short
Frequency-Hop codes on any narrowband receiver except a
Frequency-Hop spread-spectrum receiver using the exact same
channel sequence as was used by the transmitter.
– Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with
many types of conventional transmissions with minimal
interference. The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to
the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a
result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.

ECE6331
 PN Sequence Generator
 Pseudorandom sequence
– Randomness and noise properties
– Walsh, M-sequence, Gold, Kasami, Z4
– Provide signal privacy

ECE6331
 Direct Sequence (DS)-CDMA
 It phase-modulates a sine wave pseudo-randomly with a
continuous string of pseudo-noise code symbols called
"chips", each of which has a much shorter duration than
an information bit. That is, each information bit is
modulated by a sequence of much faster chips.
Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than the
information signal bit rate.
 It uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips
produced by the transmitter is known a priori by the
receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN
sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on
the received signal in order to reconstruct the information
signal.

ECE6331
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
 Unique code to
differentiate all users
 Sequence used for
spreading have low
cross-correlations
 Allow many users to
occupy all the
frequency/bandwidth
allocations at that
same time
 Processing gain is
the system capacity
– How many users
the system can
support

ECE6331
 Spreading & Despreading
 Spreading
– Source signal is multiplied by a PN signal: 6.134, 6.135
 Processing Gain: G = Ts = ChipRate
p
Tc DataRate
 Despreading
– Spread signal is multiplied by the spreading code
 Polar {±1} signal representation

ECE6331
 Direct Sequence Spreading

ECE6331
 Spreading & Despreading

ECE6331
 CDMA – Multiple Users
 One user’s information
is the other’s
interferences
 If the interference
structure can be
explored, multiuser
detection
– Match filter
– Decorrelator
– MMSE decodor
– Successive
cancellation
– Decision feedback
ECE6331
 CDMA Example

R Receiver (a base station)

Data=1011… Data=0010…

A B

Transmitter (a mobile) Transmitter

Codeword=010011 Codeword=101010

Data transmitted from A and B is multiplexed using CDMA and codewords.

The Receiver de-multiplexes the data using dispreading.

ECE6331
 CDMA Example – transmission from two sources

A Data
1 0 1 1

A 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Codeword

Data ⊕ Code 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
A Signal

B Data 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
B
Codeword
Data ⊕ Code 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
B Signal

Transmitted
A+B
Signal

ECE6331
 CDMA Example – recovering signal A at the receiver

A+B
Signal
received

A
Codeword
at
receiver

(A + B) ∗ Code

Integrator
Output

Comparator
Output 0 1 0 0

Take the inverse of this to obtain A

ECE6331
 CDMA Example – recovering signal B at the receiver

A+B
Signal
received

B
Codeword
at
receiver

(A + B) ∗ Code

Integrator
Output

Comparator
Output
1 1 0 1

Take the inverse of this to obtain B

ECE6331
 CDMA Example – using wrong codeword at the receiver

A+B
Signal
received

Wrong
Codeword
Used at
receiver

Integrator
Output

Comparator
Output X 0 1 1
Noise
Wrong codeword will not be able to decode the original data!

ECE6331
 Near Far Problem and Power Control
 At a receiver, the signals may come from
various (multiple sources.
– The strongest signal usually captures the
modulator. The other signals are considered B
as noise pr(M)
– Each source may have different distances to
the base station
 In CDMA, we want a base station to receive M
CDMA coded signals from various mobile
users at the same time.
– Therefore the receiver power at the base M
station for all mobile users should be close to
eacother.
– This requires power control at the mobiles. M
 Power Control: Base station monitors the RSSI M
values from different mobiles and then sends
power change commands to the mobiles over a
forward channel. The mobiles then adjust their
transmit power.

ECE6331
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
 Frequency-
hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS)
is a
spread-spectrum
method of
transmitting radio
signals by rapidly
switching a carrier
among many
frequency channels,
using a
pseudorandom
sequence known to
both transmitter and
receiver.
 Military, bluetooth
ECE6331
 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques
 FDMA/CDMA
– Available wideband spectrum is frequency divided into
number narrowband radio channels. CDMA is employed
inside each channel.
 DS/FHMA
– The signals are spread using spreading codes (direct
sequence signals are obtained), but these signal are not
transmitted over a constant carrier frequency; they are
transmitted over a frequency hopping carrier frequency.

ECE6331
 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques
 Time Division CDMA (TCDMA)
– Each cell is using a different spreading code (CDMA
employed between cells) that is conveyed to the mobiles in
its range.
– Inside each cell (inside a CDMA channel), TDMA is
employed to multiplex multiple users.
 Time Division Frequency Hopping
– At each time slot, the user is hopped to a new frequency
according to a pseudo-random hopping sequence.
– Employed in severe co-interference and multi-path
environments.
◆ Bluetooth and GSM are using this technique.

ECE6331
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
 Special form of Multi-Carrier Transmission.
 Multi-Carrier Modulation.
– Divide a high bit-rate digital stream into several low bit-rate
schemes and transmit in parallel (using Sub-Carriers)
e--->

0
.
8
mplitud

0
.
6
lizedA

0
.
4
rma

0
.
2
No

-
0.
2

-
6 -
4 -
2 0 2 4 6
N
o
rm
aliz
edF
r
eq
ue
n
cy(
f
T)-
-
->

ECE6331
 OFDM bit loading
 Map the rate with the sub-channel condition
 Water-filling

ECE6331
 OFDM Time and Frequency Grid
 Put different users data to different time-frequency slots

ECE6331
 Guard Time and Cyclic Extension...
 A Guard time is introduced at the end of each OFDM symbol for
protection against multipath.
 The Guard time is “cyclically extended” to avoid Inter-Carrier
Interference (ICI) - integer number of cycles in the symbol interval.
 Guard Time > Multipath Delay Spread, to guarantee zero ISI & ICI.

ECE6331
OFDM Transmitter and Receiver

ECE6331
 Pro and Con
 Advantages
– Can easily be adopted to severe channel conditions without complex
equalization
– Robust to narrow-band co-channel interference
– Robust to inter-symbol interference and fading caused by multipath
propagation
– High spectral efficiency
– Efficient implementation by FFTs
– Low sensitivity to time synchronization errors
– Tuned sub-channel receiver filters are not required (unlike in conventional
FDM)
– Facilitates Single Frequency Networks, i.e. transmitter macro-diversity.
 Disadvantages
– Sensitive to Doppler shift.
– Sensitive to frequency synchronization problems
– Inefficient transmitter power consumption, since linear power amplifier is
required.

ECE6331
 OFDM Applications
 ADSL and VDSL broadband access via telephone network copper
wires.
 IEEE 802.11a and 802.11g Wireless LANs.
 The Digital audio broadcasting systems EUREKA 147,
Digital Radio Mondiale, HD Radio, T-DMB and ISDB-TSB.
 The terrestrial digital TV systems DVB-T, DVB-H, T-DMB and ISDB-T.
 The IEEE 802.16 or WiMax Wireless MAN standard.
 The IEEE 802.20 or Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA)
standard.
 The Flash-OFDM cellular system.
 Some Ultra wideband (UWB) systems.
 Power line communication (PLC).
 Point-to-point (PtP) and point-to-multipoint (PtMP) wireless applications.

ECE6331
 The IEEE 802.11a/g Standard
 Belongs to the IEEE 802.11 system of specifications for wireless LANs.
 802.11 covers both MAC and PHY layers.
 Five different PHY layers.
 802.11a/g belongs to the High Speed WLAN category with peak data rate of
54Mbps
 PHY Layer very similar to ETSI’s HIPERLAN Type 2
Mode Data Rate Coding rate Modulation No. of coded bits/ No. of data bits/
(Mbps) OFDM Sy mbol OFDM symbol
1 6 ½ BPSK 48 24
2 9 ¾ BPSK 48 36
3 12 ½ QPSK 96 48
4 18 ¾ QPSK 96 72
5 24 ½ 16 QAM 192 96
6 36 ¾ 16 QAM 192 144
2
7 48 /3 64 QAM 288 192
8 54 ¾ 64 QAM 288 216

ECE6331
 Road Map
1XRTT/3XRTT
CDMA
(IS 95 A) IS 95 B cdma2000

GSM GPRS W-CDMA

TDMA EDGE UWC-136

1999 2000 2001 2002

3X
3X
cdmaOne
cdmaOne 1X
1X
IS-95A
IS-95A IS-95B
IS-95B
No
No 3X
3X

2G 2.5G 3G Phase 1 3G Phase 2

ECE6331
 2G: IS-95A (1995)
 Known as CDMAOne Standard IS-95, ANSI J-STD-008
 Chip rate at 1.25Mbps Multiple Access CDMA
 Convolutional codes, Viterbi Uplink Frequency 869-894 MHz
Decoding Downlink Frequency 824-849 MHz
 Downlink (Base station to
mobile): Channel Separation 1.25 MHz
– Walsh code 64-bit for Modulation Scheme BPSK/QPSK
channel separation Number of Channel 64
– M-sequence 215 for cell Channel Bit Rate 1.25 Mbps (chip rate)
separation Speech Rate 8~13 kbps
 Uplink (Mobile to base station): Data Rate Up to 14.4 kbps
– M-sequence 241 for channel Maximum Tx Power 600 mW
and user separation

ECE6331
 2.5G: IS-95B (1998)
 Increased data rate for internet applications
– Up to 115 kbps (8 times that of 2G)
 Support web browser format language
– Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

ECE6331
 3G Technology
 Ability to receive live music, interactive web sessions, voice and data
with multimedia features
 Global Standard IMT-2000
– CDMA 2000, proposed by TIA
– W-CDMA, proposed by ARIB/ETSI
 Issued by ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
 Excellent voice quality
 Data rate
– 144 kbps in high mobility
– 384 kbps in limited mobility
– 2 Mbps in door
 Frequency Band 1885-2025 MHz
 Convolutional Codes
 Turbo Codes for high data rates

ECE6331
 3G: CDMA2000 (2000)
 CDMA 1xEV-DO
– peak data rate 2.4 Mbps
– supports mp3 transfer and video conferencing
 CDMA 1xEV-DV
– Integrated voice and high-speed data multimedia service up
to 3.1 Mbps
 Channel Bandwidth:
– 1.25, 5, 10, 15 or 20 MHz
 Chip rate at 3.6864 Mbps
 Modulation Scheme
– QPSK in downlink
– BPSK in uplink

ECE6331
 3G: CDMA2000 Spreading Codes
 Downlink
– Variable length orthogonal Walsh sequences for channel
separation
– M-sequences 3x215 for cell separation (different phase shifts)
 Uplink
– Variable length orthogonal Walsh sequences for channel
separation
– M-sequences 241 for user separation (different phase shifts)

ECE6331
 3G: W-CDMA (2000)
 Stands for “wideband” CDMA
 Channel Bandwidth:
– 5, 10 or 20 MHz
 Chip rate at 4.096 Mbps
 Modulation Scheme
– QPSK in downlink
– BPSK in uplink
 Downlink
– Variable length orthogonal sequences for channel separation
– Gold sequences 218 for cell separation
 Uplink
– Variable length orthogonal sequences for channel separation
– Gold sequences 241 for user separation

ECE6331
 4G OFDM
 4G is being developed to accommodate the quality of service (QoS) and rate
requirements set by forthcoming applications like wireless broadband access,
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content,
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), minimal service like voice and data, and other
streaming services for "anytime-anywhere".
 Baseband techniques[9]
– OFDM: To exploit the frequency selective channel property
– MIMO: To attain ultra high spectral efficiency
– Turbo principle: To minimize the required SNR at the reception side
 Adaptive radio interface
 Modulation, spatial processing including multi-antenna and multi-user MIMO
 Relaying, including fixed relay networks (FRNs), and
the cooperative relaying concept, known as multi-mode protocol
 3GPP is currently standardizing LTE Advanced as future 4G standard

ECE6331