Subsurface Mapping
1
1. Introduction
• Seismic acquisition
• Seismic processing
• Understanding the data
• Seismic interpretation
3
Seismic Exploration
Figure
13.1
Reflection Seismic Method
• Waves reflected back directly from subsurface
rock interfaces
• Shorter distance from explosion to the
detectors
• Basic Principles
– Seismic waves travel at known velocities through rock
materials
– Vary with type of rock, shale = 3.6 km/s; sandstone =
4.2 km/s; limestone = 5.0 km/s
– Shotpoint – origin of waves (explosives, vibrations,
sound)
– Geophones - detectors
Variable-Density Mode, waves of certain
amplitude shaded black, other light colored Figure 13.2
Seismic acquisition offshore
Vibrator
Geophones (source)
(receivers)
Sub-horizontal
beds
Unconformity
Dipping beds
8
Seismic acquisition onshore (2)
• Seismic horizons represent changes in density and allow the
subsurface geology to be interpreted.
Lithology change
Angular
unconformity
Lithology change
9
Seismic processing
10
Wiggle trace to CDP gather
Wiggle CDP
traces gather
st
st
1 2
e
te
ow
Fas
So
Sl
u
nd
ed
re ave
wa
ct
ve
W
fle
in
First, gather sound data for Next, take all the sound Finally, place stacks for
one location and correct for traces for that one place adjacent locations side
delayed arrival (normal move and stack them on top of by side to produce a
out) each other seismic line 13
What is a reflector?
A seismic reflector is a boundary There are many
between beds with different reflectors on a seismic
properties. There may be a section. Major changes in
change of lithology or fluid fill properties usually produce
from Bed 1 to Bed 2. These strong, continuous
property changes cause some reflectors as shown by
sound waves to be reflected the arrow.
towards the surface.
energy signal
source receiver
In y
co ra
Bed 1 m d
in c te
g
ra ef le
lower velocity y R
higher velocity Re
frac
te d ra
y
Bed 2
14
Understanding the data
15
Common Depth Points
Common midpoint
above CDP
e
So
ed v
ct wa
un
reflector or the
fle d
wa
re un
halfway point when a
So
ve
wave travels from a
in
source to a reflector Change in lithology =
reflecting horizon
to a receiver’.
Common reflecting point or
common depth point (CDP)
16
Floating datum
The floating datum line represents travel time between the recording
surface and the zero line (generally sea level). This travel time depends
on rock type, how weathered the rock is, and other factors.
The topographic elevation is the height above sea level of the surface
along which the seismic data were acquired.
17
Two way time (TWT)
18
Time versus depth
• Two way time (TWT) does not equate directly to depth
• Depth of a specific reflector can be determined using boreholes
• For example, 926 m depth = 0.58 sec. TWT
288
1865
19
m
Seismic interpretation
20
Scale and orientation
first
second
third
22
Reflector character and geometry
Continuous
reflector
truncating
short ones
Next
continuous
reflector
Reflectors
onlapping
continuous
one
23
Seismic reflection configuration
and reflection continuity
Figure 13.4
Figure 13.5
Downlap
onlap
Figure 13.8
Relationships that define
Unconformable boundaries
Figure 13.9
Mapping unconformities key to seismic
sequence analysis
Sequence Boundaries, Downlap,
Reflection terminations
Above discontinuities –
onlap, downlap
Channeled
Surface
– Below
Boundary
e l
n n Sh
h a elf
C
Both have unique processes &
structures that can be used to
identify their setting
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
Tools Enable Sequence
Stratigraphic Analysis
This analysis involves
• Subdivision of section into sequences, parasequences and
beds.
• Link conceptual models with mix of components of the
individual sequence, parasequence or beds
• Use these to explain the depositional setting in terms of
their lithology, grain size, sedimentary structures,
contacts character (gradational, abrupt) etc
Can it be supper
time?
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
GEOL 553 Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis
Unconfined Flow - Not in a
Channel
• Unique Processes
– Flow is in all directions
– No lateral boundaries, only upper and lower
boundaries
– Velocity changes: high to low
• Sediment responses
– Decrease in grain size: Fining outward (coarse to
fine)
– Erosional/sharp/gradational contacts
– Accretion: Downstream, upstream and vertical
– Decrease in sedimentary structures away from
source
• Geometries
– Sheets
– Thin in direction of553
GEOL flow
Lecture 3; Subsurface
Analysis