a major fact of life in the world today (Bhatia & Ritchie 2004)
far from being exceptional is a problem which affects the majority of the
world’s population (Mackey 1967)
exists in nearly all countries of the world (Grosjean 1982)
the majority of the world’s population is bilingual (DeBot 1992)
an increasing number of children grow with “bilingualism as a first language”
(Hakuta 1986)
two-thirds of the world’s children grow in a bilingual environment (Crystal
1997)
there is a real sense in which a monolingual person, with a monolingual
temperament, is disadvantaged or deprived (Crystal 2000)
the doom of monolingualism (Graddol 2006)
monolingualism is an aberration, an affliction of the powerful (Edwards 2004)
Theoretical context
Bilingual research
Has grown dramatically worldwide, especially in Canada, Belgium, South Africa,
the USA, etc.
The concept one nation – one language lost its relevance in linguistics: the point of
reference is no longer the ‘ideal monolingual speaker/listener’ (Romaine 1989)
Bilingualism defined: a complex concept with ‘open-ended semantics’ (Beardsmore
1986); Bloomfield 1933, Haugen 1953, Weinreich 1953
The debate on the positive and negative effects of bilingualism
Early studies: ‘retarded’, ‘confused’, ‘feeble-minded’, ‘handicapped’ in their mental
growth (Saer 1924, Goodenough 1926, Thomson 1952)
If it were possible for a child to live in two languages, at once equally well,
so much the worse. His intellectual and spiritual growth would not thereby
be doubled, but halved (Laurie 1893: 18)
Peal and Lambert’s watershed paper: favourable cognitive and socio-cultural
consequences of bilingualism
Modern perspectives: Bilingualism is viewed as a factor of cultural enrichment, a
valuable intellectual and societal asset
Elizabeth Peal and Wallace Lambert’s
The Relation of Bilingualism to Intelligence (1962)
A bilingual child is
[…] a youngster whose wider experiences in two cultures
have given him advantages which a monolingual does not
enjoy. Intellectually his experience with two language
systems seems to have left him with a mental flexibility, a
superiority in concept formation, a more diversified set
of mental abilities […] There is no question about the fact
that he is superior intellectually. […] In contrast, a
monolingual appears to have a more unitary structure of
intelligence which he must use for all types of intellectual
tasks (Peal and Lambert 1962:20)
The Canadian backdrop
The twentieth century belongs to Canada (Wilfrid Laurier, PM, 1904)
Socio-political context: redefining the role of French Canadians
The Quiet Revolution (1960–1966): rejection of traditional values “les trois
dominantes de la pensée canadienne-française: l’agriculturisme, le messianisme
et l’anti-étatisme” (Michel Brunet)
the Official Languages Act (1969)
Academic climate
The era of the “cognitive sixties”
Study of bilingualism has been a respectable and theoretically profitable
enterprise in Canadian psychological circles. [Canadian researchers] are
confronted with bilingualism even in their own homes, as their children
attempt to struggle with bilingualism (Hakuta 1988: 304)
W. Lambert – ‘father of research on bilingualism’
The experiment
Subjects: number, age, gender, class, proficiency
Two groups of 110 ten-year old fourth-graders from six
middle-class French schools in Montreal with a gender
ration of six boys to four girls: ‘balanced’ French-English
bilinguals and French monolinguals
Research after 1962 has tended to move away from the “monistic”
notion of IQ to the “pluralistic” notion of a multi-component view of
intelligence and cognition’ (Baker 1988: 20)
Theoretical contribution (2)
Code switching: the alternation two languages within a single
discourse.
Bilinguals typically acquire experience in switching from one
language to another, possibly trying to solve a problem while
thinking in one language, and then when blocked, switching to the
other. This habit, if it were developed, could help them in their
performance on tests requiring symbolic reorganization since they
demand a readiness to drop one hypothesis or concept and try
another. (Peal and Lambert 1962:14)