Chapter 2/2 (Physical Layer)

• Public Switched Telephone System (2)

• The Mobile Telephone System
• Cable Television

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 Public Switched Telephone System (2)

• Trunks and Multiplexing

• Switching
• The Mobile Telephone System
PLMN
• Cable Television

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 Frequency Division Multiplexing

Multiplexed
channel

Original The bandwidths

bandwidths raised in frequency

Group hierarchy
1 group = 12 voice channels (48 kHz)
1 supergroup = 5 groups = 60 voice channels (240 kHz)
1 mastergroup = 5 supergoups = 300 voice channels (1200 kHz)

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 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Each channel carries 2.5 Gbps and they multiplex 40 channels going to 200 Channels.
Because of slow electric to optical conversion bandwidth is less than 5 GHz or 10 Gbps.
Since fiber bandwidth is 25000 GHz there is theoretical room for 5000 channels.

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 8-th bit every
Time Division Multiplexing (CCITT) 6-th frame.

T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps)

• Voice: 7 bits for data 1 for signaling.
• Data: 23 data channels and 24-th channel for signaling.
E1 carrier 32*64 kbps = 2.048 Mbps
• 30 used for voice/data
• 31 and 32 used for signaling
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 Time Division Multiplexing hierarchy

Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

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 Sonet time Division Multiplexing
First row in line overhead
points to the first payload byte.

First two bytes contain frame synchronization bit pattern.

SONET frame: 810 bytes/125 mks = 51.84 Mbps.
SPE (Synchronous Payload Envelope – user data)
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 SONET and SDH* multiplex rates

*
SDH – Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

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 Circuit Switching

(a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching.

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 Message Switching

(a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching

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Circuit switched vs. packet-switched networks

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 The Mobile Telephone System
• First-Generation Mobile Phones:
Analog Voice AMPS 800 MHz band
• Second-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice 1900 MHz IS-136, IS-54, IS-95
• 2.5 generation introduces data over voice network:
GSM -> GPRS.
• Third-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice and Data: UMTS/W-CDMA, CDMA-
2000.
• Fourth-Generation Mobile Phones:
WiFi and WiMax

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 Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells: 832 full duplex channels,
21 for control hardwired into phone. Typical 45 channels/cell.
(b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.

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 TDM Channel Categories
800 MHz + 1900 MHz band 30 KHz channels are divided into four
categories:

• Control (base to mobile) to manage the system. 21 channels

hardwired into phone ROM.

• Paging (base to mobile) to alert users for calls for them

• Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel assignment

• Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data. Voice is compressed

to 8 kbps for 3 slots per frame or 4 kbps for 6 slots per frame.

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D-AMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System)||TDMA

(a) D-AMPS channel with three users.

(b) D-AMPS channel with six users.

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GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications

GSM uses 124 frequency channels 200 kHz each of

which uses an eight-slot (992 slots) TDM system.

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 GSM framing structure

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 CDMA concept
Senders
Chip rate
d1o=1
Zi,1m = di1cm1 Spreading factor = chip_rate/data_rate.
Data bits d11=-1 dB = 10 log( spreading rate/data rate )
has the same effect as dB (signal/noise).
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Chips
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1

Data bits d21=1 d2o=1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Zi,2m = di2cm2
Chips
-1 -1 -1 -1

Channel Zi,*m

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 d1i = (m Zi,*mc1m)/M

d1o=1

2 2 2 2 2 2 d11=-1

-2 -2
d21=1 d2o=1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d2i = (m Zi,*mc2m)/M
-1 -1 -1 -1

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 Third-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice and Data

Basic services an IMT-2000 network should provide

• High-quality voice transmission

• Messaging (e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc.)
• Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.)
• Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)

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 Cable Television

• Community Antenna Television

• Internet over Cable
• Spectrum Allocation
• Cable Modems
• ADSL versus Cable

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 An early cable television system

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 Phone and Internet over Cable

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 TV over Subscriber Loop
The fixed telephone system.

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 TV Spectrum Allocation for Internet access

Upstream; QPSK is used due to large noise.

Downstream: QAM-64 and QAM-256 is used. For 6 MHz bandwidth it is 36 Mbps.

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 Cable Modems

Upstream channels are divided into minislots. Headend assigns

upstream minislot and downstream channels (184 byte payload
length) to the powered-up modem. Typical minislot is 8 bytes.
Collision is Slotted Aloha with random backoff doubled each
successive collision. IP address is dynamically allocated to
modem using DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).

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 Chapter 3
The Data Link Layer

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 Functions of the Data Link Layer

Error free service provided to the Network Layer

• Framing
• Error Control: dealing with transmission errors
• Flow Control: regulating data flow (through
acknowledgments) so that slow receivers are not
swamped by fast senders.

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 Relationship between packets and frames

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 Services Provided to Network Layer

(a) Virtual communication.

(b) Actual communication.

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 DLL within a router

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 Framing with character count

A character stream:
(a) Without errors: first byte contains the message length (in bytes).
(b) With one error: receiver looses synchronization and cannot recover.

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Framing with ‘esc’ character: byte stuffing (PPP)

(a) A frame delimited by flag bytes.

(b) Four examples of byte sequences before and after stuffing.

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 Framing with zero insertion (HDLC)
Flag bit pattern: 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Zero insertion eliminates flag bit pattern to appear in the output text

(a) The original data.

(b) The data as they appear on the line.
(c) The data as they are stored in receiver’s memory after destuffing.

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 Error Detection and Correction
(using additional bits)
• Error-Correcting Codes (used in voice communication)

• Error-Detecting Codes (used in data communication)

Sender receives a positive acknowledgment if data received
correctly and negative ack to ask for retransmission.

• What to do if sent frame is completely lost?

Solution is to use a timer slightly larger than round-trip delay. If
sender doesn’t receive ack it retransmits.
There is a possibility that receiver receives the same frame
twice. To avoid that the frames are numbered in increasing
order and each frame carries this (sequence) number.

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 Hamming Distance
Hamming distance d: the number of bits in which two words differ. To
mistaken one word with the other at least d bits must be in error.

Hamming distance of the code: the minimum Hamming distance

between any two code words.

For error detection with d bit error the code must have distance d+1.

R S1 S2 are two valid code words. R is

S1 d+1 S2 the word received. Since not within the
set of valid words it is an error. We have
d d
no way to say whether R is S1 or S2.
Hence error detection.

For error correction with d bit error the code must have distance 2d+1.

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 Error Correction

R
S1 2d + 1 S2
d d

Code with hamming distance 2d + 1 is capable of error correction

within d or less erroneous bits.
If R is received we say that the sending code word is S2.

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 Hamming code corrects single bit errors
110 111 m - word bits
r - check bits
n = m + r code bits
100 101
010 011 Example:
m=1
n=3
000 001 r=2

For single bit error correction: each valid

word has n bit pattern dedicated to it
(obtained by one bit change in a valid word).
Therefore m r
1 2 complete
(n+1)*2m <= 2n. 2 3
3 3
(m + r + 1)*2m <= 2m+r. 4 3 complete
7 4
m+r+1 <= 2r 1000 10

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 Hamming (11,7) Code
Coding
p1 p2 d1 p3 d2 d3 d4 p4 d5 d6 d7
Data word (without parity) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
p1 0 1 0 1 0 0
p2 0 1 0 1 0 0
p3 1 0 0 1
p4 0 0 0 0
Data word (with even parity) 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Decoding: the position of error bit = 8*p4 + 4*p3 + 2*p2 + p1 -> 8 + 2 + 1 = 11.
p1 p2 d1 p3 d2 d3 d4 p4 d5 d6 d7 Parity check Parity
bit

Received word 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
p1 0 1 0 1 0 1 fail 1

p2 0 1 0 1 0 1 fail 1

p3 1 0 0 1 pass 0

p4 0 0 0 1 fail 1

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Use of a Hamming code to correct burst errors

Words are sent leftmost column first then the next column etc. If the burst error
(burst <= 12) occurs it can be recovered by Hamming correction code.

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 Cyclic Redundancy Check
Error Detecting Codes
Only words (represented as a single number) that are divisible by given
divisor are valid. In modulo arithmetic there is finite number of these
words. They are evenly spaced (equidistant from each other). Say all
number up to 100 divisible by 7 are legal.
Coding: transform message M word into code word T using generator
polynomial G.
Assume we want to send M = 50.
1. Multiply M*10 -> 500 (10 is the order of G)
2. Divide M*10 : G -> 500 : 7 = 71 + 3/7 -> 500 = 71*7 + 3 (remainder)
3. Subtract remainder from M*10 -> T = 500 – 3 = 497 (certainly
divisible by 7).
Decoding: T/G -> 497/7 = 71 (good word divisible by 7)

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 CRC codes
G(x) is generating polynomial of degree r.
M(x) is a message word of degree m > r.
Coding
1. Append r 0’s to the M(x) -> xr M(x).
2. Divide modulo 2: xr M(x) : G(x) = Q(x) + R(x)/G(x)
3. T(x) = xr M(x) - R(x). (Certainly divisible by G(x))
On the next slide G(x) = x4 + x + 1 = 10011 -> r = 4.
M(x) = x9 + x8 + x6 + x4 + x3 + x + 1 = 1101011011 -> m = 9.
1. x4M(x) = 11010110110000
2. R(x) = x4M(x) : G(x) = 1110 = x3 + x2 + x < G(x)
3. T(x) = x4M(x) + R(x) = 11010110111110 (certainly divisible by G(x)).

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 Calculation of the polynomial code checksum.

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 Analysis of CRC coding: choice of G(x)
Decoding:
Receiver calculates the remainder: (T(x) + E(x))/G(x) = E(x)/G(x).
1. Single bit error: E(x) = xi . If G(x) contains 2 or more terms xi will never be divisible by
G(x) => single error is always detected.
2. Double error: E(x) = xi + xj = xj(xi-j + 1) -> xk + 1 (0 < k < frame length)
3. G(x) = x15 + x14 + 1 detects double errors up to 32768 frame length.
….
4. Polynomial coding with r check bits will detect all burst errors with the burst error length
<= r.

CRC calculations are performed on a fly by shift registers with feedback that is
determined by G(x).

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