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It forms most of the fetal skeleton and persists in locations where its mechanical properties are needed. Most fetal cartilage eventually becomes bone. Consists of a matrix and ground substance all produced by the chondrocytes or cartilage-forming cells: 1.Type I collagen (fibrocartilage) & Type II collagen (hyaline & elastic cartilage); other types rare 2.GAGs: chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid, with smaller amounts of keratan sulfate and heparan sulfate. The basophilia of cartilage matrix is due to the strongly acidic sulfate groups of mucopolysaccharides. 2

3.Glycoproteins which attach cells and various matrix components to one another, including link proteins fibronectin, and chondronectin, chondrocalcin 4.Tissue fluid which is an ultrafiltrate of blood plasma. The matrix is typically hydrated, owing to the negative charges of the GAGs. When compressed, water moves away from these charged domains, causing the negative charges to exert a repulsive force that resists further compression.
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 Perichondrium is dense CT covering which contains the vascular supply and fibroblastlike stem cells from which additional chondrocytes may arise. Its inner chondrogenetic layer is where appositional growth by cell enlargement occurs. It contains potential cartilageforming cells or chondroblasts. The outer layer of areolar tissue, contains several blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves which are absent within the cartilage matrix. Consequently, the cartilage cells are nourished by blood vessels of the outer layer of the perichondrium.
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 Cartilage is derived from mesenchyme. The cells first withdraw their processes, assume the rounded shape of chondroblasts, which then multiply by mitosis to form dense aggregations called mesenchymal condensation, protochondral tissue or center of chondrification. Each of the cells secretes around themselves a hyaline matrix, forming a capsule around the cell.

 As the amount of interstitial material increases, the cells become isolated in separate compartments or lacunae taking on the cytological characteristics of mature cartilage cells or chondrocytes. The process of matrix formation continues and the older capsules are gradually incorporated into the matrix with the deposition of the new ones. Peripheral mesenchyme condenses around the developing cartilage mass to form the perichondrium. CT fibers appear within the matrix. The fibrils that form extracellularly are masked by the hyaline substance in which they are embedded.

 Appositional (exogenous) growth- this is responsible for increase in the girth of the cartilage masses. This type of growth takes place at the periphery of the cartilage in the inner or chondrogenetic layer of the perichondrium. New cells and matrix are contributed to the surface of the cartilage mass. This brings about an increase in the width of the cartilage through hypertrophy or enlargement of cells. Appositional growth starts somewhat later than interstitial growth but it continues throughout life. It is the only type of growth in mature cartilage since calcified matrix makes interstitial growth impossible.
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 Chondrocyte function depends on proper hormonal balance. The growth hormone somatotropin (promotes synthesis of somatomedin C in the liver which in turn promote cartilage growth). Matrix synthesis is also enhanced by thyroxine and testosterone, but inhibited by estradiol and excess cortisone. The chemistry of the proteoglycans produced changes with age. Older people secrete smaller proteoglycans, with shorter chondroitin sulfate chains that structure less water, making the matrix vulnerable to small injuries in weight-bearing and arthritis-associated inflammatory responses to injury.
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somewhat elastic, semitransparent tissue with an opalescent bluish gray tint. There are 3 sub-types: a.Adult Hyaline Cartilagelarynx, trachea, bronchi and other respiratory passages, developing bone Chondrocytes occupy small cavities or lacunae within the matrix. They are usually ovoid or spherical, and each contains a large, spherical or centrally placed nucleus with 1 or more nucleoli.

 In the center of the cartilage plate in the adult, the cells maybe arranged in groups, each isogenous group representing the offspring of a single parent chondrocyte. The deeply stained basophilic rim (capsular or territorial matrix) often shows concentric lines. The less basophilic matrix between the cell groups is called the inter-territorial or intercapsular matrix. A pericapsular capsule consisting of a feltwork of very fine fibers immediately surrounding the lacunae protect chondrocytes in cartilage subjected to mechanical tension or compression.
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 Toward the periphery, the cells are elliptical and flattened, arranged peripheral to the surface Collagen fibers are present in the matrix in the form of an interlacing network of fine fibrils. They do not exhibit the periodic cross-banding characteristic of collagen fibers found in bone or CT. Fibers are not demonstrable since the cartilage matrix & the ground substance appear homogenous owing to the small size of type II collagen fibrils. In the immediate vicinity of cells, they are sparse or absent but abundant in the intercapsular matrix. Secretion of collagen precursors follow the same pathway as the secretion of protein by a glandular cell. The Golgi complex is the site of synthesis of the complex carbohydrate constituents of the matrix; amino acids are incorporated into protein at the ribosomes.
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 In living cartilage, chondrocytes completely fill their lacunae, but owing to shrinkage resulting from fixation and dehydration, cartilage cells show marked distortion and seldom conform to the shape of their lacunae. The cytoplasm is finely granular, & mildly basophilic due to the presence of abundant free ribosomes and of relatively well-developed granular ER. It also contains large mitochondria, vacuoles, fat droplets, variable amounts of glycogen. In cartilage that is not actively growing, the ER is less extensive and the Golgi complex not so prominent. The amorphous ground substance is deeply colored with the PAS reaction for complex carbohydrates. It has a marked affinity for basic dyes and stains metachromatically with toluidine blue
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Adult hyaline may show retrogressive changes: a.Calcification: deposition of calcium salts whereby the matrix becomes hard and brittle like bone. It takes place prior to the formation of primary bone in endochondral ossification. Calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate are deposited in the intercellular substance initially in the vicinity of the cells and later in the matrix. b.Asbestos transformation: cartilage is transformed into an asbestos-like consistency. Closely packed coarse fibers which are not collagenous maybe deposited in the matrix giving it a silky appearance. Eventually this process may lead to the softening of matrix or even to the formation of a cavity.
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 Repair of cartilage fractures involves invasion of the breach by mesenchymal stem cells from the perichondrium, which then differentiates into chondrocytes. If the gap is large, a dense CT scar may form instead of new cartilage. If blood flow is compromised, chondrocytes may die due to their dependence on diffusion for nutrition. The avascularity of cartilage is believed to be due to an unidentified factor that inhibits ingrowth of blood vessels. This property and its consequential impenetrability to immunoglobulins and cytotoxic lymphocytes prevent them from contracting and lysing foreign tissue, making it ideal for cosmetic and reconstructive surgery.
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b.Articular Hyaline Cartilage Found between articulating surfaces. Perichondrium is absent on surfaces that in contact with articulating bones. This type is more cellular than the adult variety. Chondrocytes toward the center are bigger; cell families are also present. The matrix is similar to the adult hyaline type. Its is avascular, being partly nourished by the synovial fluid and blood vessels found in the surrounding areolar tissue.
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c.Fetal hyaline cartilage Found in the entire skeletal system of the developing embryo, except the flat bones of the skull and face. It is provided with a fetal perichondrium. The outer layer contains plenty of small blood vessels, while the chondrogenetic layer is thick with plenty of flattened cells. The most cellular among the 3 types of hyaline cartilage. The cells are not arranged in groups but are scattered singly, very small and irregularly arranged. The matrix is similar to the adult hyaline type; it is avascular. It provides a framework for the endochondral ossification, and represents the early stage in development of all cartilage.
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epiglottis, external ear, walls of the auditory and Eustachean tubes, parts of the corniculate and cuneiform laryngeal cartilages It differs from the hyaline variety in its yellowish color, greater opacity, flexibility, and elasticity. In addition to type II collagen fibers, it contains branching and anastomosing elastic fibers. They form a network of elastic fibers that is often so dense they obscure the ground substance.
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 As in the hyaline variety, it possesses a perichondrium that initiates appositional growth. Cell families are fewer. Cellular content is more or less similar to that of the adult hyaline variety. It is avascular. It has a tendency to undergo fatty degeneration or metamorphosis. The fatty tissue formed differs from ordinary adipose tissue by being avascular. Calcification and asbestos formation may take place to some degree.
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- intervertebral disks, symphysis pubis, ligamentum teres femoris It maybe considered as a transition structure between dense fibrous CT and hyaline cartilage. Contains a dense network of anastomosing bundles of collagenous fibers. The interstices of this meshwork are filled with scanty hyaline matrix conspicuous only in the immediate vicinity of cells. The chondrocytes are ovoid, lodged in lacunae, or are sometimes aligned in rows between bundles of collagen. It is vascular. Having no perichondrium, its blood supply is derived from the blood vessels of the surrounding tissues. It has a slight tendency to undergo any form of degeneration.
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 The intervertebral disks act as cushions between the vertebrae, allowing limited movement of the vertebral column. They are bound to the vertebrae by ligaments. Each disk is made up of 2 parts: a.Annulus Fibrosus- the outer ring composed mainly of fibrocartilage and covered on its outer surface by dense CT of associated ligaments. Rupture of the annulus results in expulsion of the liquid nucleus pulposus. The concomitant flattening of the disk makes it slip from its position between vertebrae, compress nerves, resulting in severe pain and neurologic disturbances.
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b. Nucleus Pulposusforms the center of the disk and derived from embryonic notochord. It is composed of mucous CT, with few fibers and rounded cells embedded in type II collagen and hyaluronic acid-rich ground substance. It is smaller in adults, being partially replaced by fibrocartilage.
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