Grotzinger Jordan

Understanding Earth
Sixth Edition

Chapter 4: IGNEOUS ROCKS Solids from Melts

2011 by W. H. Freeman and Company

Chapter 4:

Igneous Rocks:
Solids from Melts

About Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks form from liquid rock (magma) in several different ways. Igneous processes within the Earth produce intrusive igneous rocks. Igneous processes on or near Earths surface produce extrusive igneous rocks.

Lecture Outline
1. How do igneous rocks differ from one another? 2. How do magmas form? 3. Magmatic differentiation 4. Forms of igneous intrusions 5. Igneous processes and plate tectonics

1. How Do Igneous Rocks Differ from One Another?

Texture size of crystals CoarseCoarse-grained rocks FineFine-grained rocks Mixed texture rocks

1. How Do Igneous Rocks Differ from One Another?

1. How Do Igneous Rocks Differ from One Another?

Clues about significance of texture Early studies of volcanic rocks Laboratory crystallization studies Studies of slow cooling in granite

1. How Do Igneous Rocks Differ from One Another?

Texture is related to rate of cooling. Intrusive igneous rocks Extrusive igneous rocks

1. How Do Igneous Rocks Differ from One Another?

Pyroclasts

Igneous Textures

Extrusive rocks

Porphyry

Intrusive rocks

Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Bomb

Pumice

Extrusive rocks

Porphyry

Intrusive rocks

Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Bomb

Pumice

Extrusive pyroclasts form in violent eruptions from lava in the air.

Extrusive rocks

Porphyry

Intrusive rocks

Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Bomb

Pumice

Extrusive pyroclasts form in violent eruptions from lava in the air.

Extrusive rocks

Mafic Basalt

Felsic Rhyolite

Porphyry

Intrusive rocks

Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Bomb

Pumice

Extrusive pyroclasts form in violent eruptions from lava in the air.

Extrusive rocks

Mafic Basalt

Felsic Rhyolite

Porphyry

Extrusive igneous rocks cool rapidly and are finegrained.

Intrusive rocks

Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Bomb

Pumice

Extrusive pyroclasts form in violent eruptions from lava in the air.

Extrusive rocks

Mafic Basalt

Felsic Rhyolite

Porphyry Gabbro Granite

Extrusive igneous rocks cool rapidly and are finegrained.

Intrusive rocks

Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Bomb

Pumice

Extrusive pyroclasts form in violent eruptions from lava in the air.

Extrusive rocks

Mafic Basalt

Felsic Rhyolite

Porphyry Gabbro Granite

Extrusive igneous rocks cool rapidly and are finegrained. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly, allowing large, coarse crystals to form.

Intrusive rocks

Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Bomb

Pumice

Extrusive pyroclasts form in violent eruptions from lava in the air.

Extrusive rocks

Mafic Basalt

Felsic Rhyolite

Porphyry Gabbro Granite

Extrusive igneous rocks cool rapidly and are finegrained. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly, allowing large, coarse crystals to form.

Phenocrysts Intrusive rocks

Porphyry

Pyroclasts

Volcanic ash

Bomb

Pumice

Extrusive pyroclasts form in violent eruptions from lava in the air.

Extrusive rocks

Mafic Basalt

Felsic Rhyolite

Porphyry Gabbro Granite

Extrusive igneous rocks cool rapidly and are finegrained. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly, allowing large, coarse crystals to form. Some phenocrysts grow large, but the remaining melt cools faster, forming smaller crystals during an eruption.

Phenocrysts Intrusive rocks

Porphyry

Chemical and Mineral Composition of Igneous Rocks

Two basic compositional groups: Felsic igneous rocks Mafic igneous rocks

Chemical and Mineral Composition of Igneous Rocks

Four compositional groups: Felsic igneous rocks Intermediate igneous rocks Mafic igneous rocks Ultramafic igneous rocks

Thought questions for this chapter

How would you classify a coarse-grained igneous rock coarsethat contains about 50 percent pyroxene and 50 percent olivine? What kind of rock would contain some plagioclase feldspar crystals about 5 mm long floating in a dark gray matrix of crystals less than 1 mm? What differences in crystal size might you expect to find between two sills, one intruded at a depth of about 12 km, where country rock was very hot, and the other at a depth of 0.5 km, where the country rock was moderately warm?

Thought questions for this chapter

Assume that a magma with a certain ratio of calcium to sodium starts to crystallize. If fractional crystallization occurs during the solidification process, will the plagioclase feldspars formed after complete crystallization have the same ratio of sodium that characterized the magma? Why are plutons more likely than dikes to show the effects of fractional crystallization? What might be the origin of a rock composed almost entirely of olivine?

Thought questions for this chapter

What processes create the unequal sizes of crystals in porphyries?

2. How Do Magmas Form?

Why do rocks melt?

2. How Do Magmas Form?

What is a magma chamber? A rising mass of magma that pushes aside crustal rocks as it rises through the crust.

2. How Do Magmas Form?

A temperature of about 1000rC 1000r is required for partial melting of crustal rocks. A depth of at least 40 km is required for temperatures of 1000rC to occur.

3. Magmatic Differentiation

A process by which rocks of varying composition can arise from a uniform parent magma. The first minerals to crystallize from a cooling magma are the ones that are the last to melt.

3. Magmatic Differentiation

Fractional crystallization is the process by which the crystals are formed in a cooling magma and are segregated from the remaining liquid. Example: basaltic intrusion like Palisades, New Jersey

3. Magmatic Differentiation THE PALISADES INTRUSION

3. Magmatic Differentiation
BOWENS REACTION SERIES
Magma composition Temperature ~600C
Orthoclase feldspar Muscovite mica Quartz

Felsic, Rhyolitic (high silica)

Biotite mica Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate, andesitic Mafic, basaltic Ultramafic (low silica)

~1200C

Simultaneous crystallization

Calciumrich

BOWENS REACTION SERIES

As magma temperature decreases
Magma composition Temperature ~600C
Orthoclase feldspar Muscovite mica Quartz

Felsic, Rhyolitic (high silica)

Biotite mica Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate, andesitic Mafic, basaltic Ultramafic (low silica)

~1200C

Simultaneous crystallization

Calciumrich

BOWENS REACTION SERIES

As magma temperature decreases materials crystallize in an ordered series
Magma composition
Orthoclase feldspar Muscovite mica Quartz

Temperature ~600C

Felsic, Rhyolitic (high silica)

Biotite mica Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate, andesitic Mafic, basaltic Ultramafic (low silica)

~1200C

Simultaneous crystallization

Calciumrich

BOWENS REACTION SERIES

As magma temperature decreases materials crystallize in an ordered series while plagioclase feldspar crystallizes, from calcium-rich sodium-rich form

Magma composition
Felsic, Rhyolitic (high silica)

Temperature ~600C

Orthoclase feldspar Muscovite mica Quartz

Biotite mica Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate, andesitic Mafic, basaltic Ultramafic (low silica)

~1200C

Simultaneous crystallization

Calciumrich

BOWENS REACTION SERIES

As magma temperature decreases materials crystallize in an ordered series while plagioclase feldspar crystallizes, from calcium-rich sodium-rich form

Magma composition
Felsic, Rhyolitic (high silica)

Temperature ~600C

Orthoclase feldspar Muscovite mica Quartz

Biotite mica Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine

Sodiumrich

Intermediate, andesitic Mafic, basaltic Ultramafic (low silica)

~1200C

Simultaneous crystallization

Calciumrich

and the composition of magma changes from ultramafic to andesitic.

3. Magmatic Differentiation GRANITE AND BASALT

Crystallizing minerals Magma chamber A

Magma chamber B

Partial melting of country rock

Basaltic magma

Partial melting creates a magma of a particular composition.

Crystallizing minerals

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber B

Partial melting of country rock

Basaltic magma

Partial melting creates a magma of a particular composition. Cooling causes minerals to crystallize and settle.

Crystallizing minerals

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber B

Partial melting of country rock

Basaltic magma

Partial melting creates a magma of a particular composition. Cooling causes minerals to crystallize and settle.

Crystallizing minerals

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber B

Magma chamber B

Partial melting of country rock

Basaltic magma

Partial melting creates a magma of a particular composition. Cooling causes minerals to crystallize and settle.

A basaltic magma chamber breaks through.

Crystallizing minerals

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber B

Magma chamber B

Partial melting of country rock

Basaltic magma

Partial melting creates a magma of a particular composition. Cooling causes minerals to crystallize and settle.

A basaltic magma chamber breaks through. Mixing results in andesitic magma.

Crystallizing minerals

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber B

Magma chamber B

Partial melting of country rock

Basaltic magma

Partial melting creates a magma of a particular composition. Cooling causes minerals to crystallize and settle.

A basaltic magma chamber breaks through. Mixing results in andesitic magma. Crystals may accumulate on the sides and roof of the chamber due to turbulence.

Crystallizing minerals

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber A

Magma chamber B

Magma chamber B

Partial melting of country rock

Basaltic magma

Thought questions for this chapter

What observations would show that a pluton solidified during fractional crystallization?

4. Forms of Igneous Intrusions

Plutons Discordant intrusions Batholiths Stocks Concordant intrusions Sills Dikes Veins

4. Forms of Igneous Intrusions

Lava flow Country rock Volcano

Ash falls and pyroclasts Volcanic neck with radiating dikes

Stock Sill

Sill

Sill

Lava flow Country rock Volcano

Ash falls and pyroclasts Volcanic neck with radiating dikes

Stock Sill

Sill

Sill

Dikes cut across layers of country rock

Lava flow Country rock Volcano

Ash falls and pyroclasts Volcanic neck with radiating dikes

Stock Sill

Sill

Sill

Dikes cut across layers of country rock but sills run parallel to them.

Lava flow Country rock Volcano

Ash falls and pyroclasts Volcanic neck with radiating dikes

Stock Sill

Sill

Sill

Dikes cut across layers of country rock but sills run parallel to them. Batholiths are the largest forms of plutons, covering at least 100 km2.

5. Igneous Processes and Plate Tectonics

Magma factories: Spreading centers Subduction zones Mantle plumes

5. Igneous Processes and Plate Tectonics

5. Igneous Processes and Plate Tectonics

Origin of magma in magma factories: Decompression melting in spreading centers FluidFluid-induced melting in subduction zones

Decompression Melting: Spreading Centers

Pillow lava Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Spreading center

Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.

Pillow lava Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Spreading center

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Spreading center

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Spreading center

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Dikes intrude dikes to form sheeted dikes.

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Spreading center

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Dikes intrude dikes to form sheeted dikes. Sediments are deposited on the spreading seafloor.

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Spreading center

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Dikes intrude dikes to form sheeted dikes. Sediments are deposited on the spreading seafloor. The gabbro layer metamorphoses by contact with the magma.

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Spreading center

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Dikes intrude dikes to form sheeted dikes. Sediments are deposited on the spreading seafloor. The gabbro layer metamorphoses by contact with the magma.

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Cold seawater

Spreading center Heated seawater carrying dissolved minerals

Sheeted dikes

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Dikes intrude dikes to form sheeted dikes. Sediments are deposited on the spreading seafloor. The gabbro layer metamorphoses by contact with the magma.

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Cold seawater

Spreading center Heated seawater carrying dissolved minerals

Sheeted dikes

Seawater filters through the basalt layer, where it is heated.

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Dikes intrude dikes to form sheeted dikes. Sediments are deposited on the spreading seafloor. The gabbro layer metamorphoses by contact with the magma.

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Cold seawater

Spreading center Heated seawater carrying dissolved minerals

Sheeted dikes

Seawater filters through the basalt layer, where it is heated.

The heated seawater then rises. Dissolved minerals precipitate in the ocean.

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Dikes intrude dikes to form sheeted dikes. Sediments are deposited on the spreading seafloor. The gabbro layer metamorphoses by contact with the magma.

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Cold seawater

Spreading center Heated seawater carrying dissolved minerals Mantle

Magma chamber Peridotite layer

Sheeted dikes

Seawater filters through the basalt layer, where it is heated.

The heated seawater then rises. Dissolved minerals precipitate in the ocean.

A thin dike erupts, spilling lava in pillows. Hot mantle rises, decompresses, and melts.
Pillow lava

Dikes

Dikes intruding dikes

Newer, thinner sediments Older, thicker sediments Sheeted dikes in basalt Gabbro

Dikes intrude dikes to form sheeted dikes. Sediments are deposited on the spreading seafloor. The gabbro layer metamorphoses by contact with the magma.

Oceanic crust Moho Mantle

Peridotite layer

Cold seawater

Spreading center Heated seawater carrying dissolved minerals Mantle

Magma chamber Peridotite layer

Sheeted dikes

Seawater filters through the basalt layer, where it is heated.

The heated seawater then rises. Dissolved minerals precipitate in the ocean.

Crystals settle out of the magma, forming the peridotite layer.

FluidFluid-Induced Melting Subduction Zones

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Subducting oceanic crust carries sediments with it.

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Subducting oceanic crust carries sediments with it.

Sediment grains Water

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Subducting oceanic crust carries sediments with it.

Water remains trapped as the pressure and temperature increase.

Sediment grains Water

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Subducting oceanic crust carries sediments with it.

H2O H2O H2O

Water remains trapped as the pressure and temperature increase.

Sediment grains Water

The trapped water is released as the temperature increases,

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Subducting oceanic crust carries sediments with it.

H2O H2O H2O

Water remains trapped as the pressure and temperature increase.

Sediment grains Water

causing the sedimentary rocks to melt at lower temperatures.

The trapped water is released as the temperature increases,

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Subducting oceanic crust carries sediments with it.

H2O H2O H2O

The water and molten sediments melt parts of the overlying plate. causing the sedimentary rocks to melt at lower temperatures.

Water remains trapped as the pressure and temperature increase.

Sediment grains Water

The trapped water is released as the temperature increases,

Molten sediments combine with lithospheric magma.

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Subducting oceanic crust carries sediments with it.

H2O H2O H2O

The water and molten sediments melt parts of the overlying plate. causing the sedimentary rocks to melt at lower temperatures.

Water remains trapped as the pressure and temperature increase.

Sediment grains Water

The trapped water is released as the temperature increases,

Magma of intermediate composition is erupted to form arc volcanoes.

Molten sediments combine with lithospheric magma.

Trench

Oceanic sediments Oceanic crust basalt Oceanic mantle lithosphere

Magma chamber

Asthenosphere

Subducting oceanic crust carries sediments with it.

H2O H2O H2O

The water and molten sediments melt parts of the overlying plate. causing the sedimentary rocks to melt at lower temperatures.

Water remains trapped as the pressure and temperature increase.

Sediment grains Water

The trapped water is released as the temperature increases,

Thought questions for this chapter

If you were to drill a hole through the crust of a mid-ocean midridge, what intrusive or extrusive igneous rocks might you expect to encounter at or near the surface? What intrusive or extrusive igneous rocks might you expect at the base of the crust? Water is abundant in the sedimentary rocks and oceanic crust of subduction zones. How would the water affect melting in these zones? Why are granitic and andesitic rocks so plentiful?

Key terms and concepts

Andesite Basalt Batholith Bomb Concordant intrusion Country rock Dacite Decompression melting Dike Discordant intrusion Extrusive igneous rock Felsic rock FluidFluid-induced melting Fractional crystallization Gabbro

Key terms and concepts

Granodiorite Intermediate igneous rock Intrusive igneous rock Lava Mafic rock Magma chamber Magmatic differentiation Obsidian Ophiolite suite Partial melting Pegmatite Peridotite Pluton Porphyry Pumice

Key terms and concepts

Pyroclast Rhyolite Sill Stock Tuff Ultramafic rock Vein Viscosity Volcanic ash