Urinary System and Fluid Balance

Kidney
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Each kidney is behind the peritoneum and surrounded by a renal capsule and a renal fat pad. The kidney is divided in an outer cortex and on inner medulla. Each renal pyramid has a base that extends into the cortex; the tip extends into the medulla and is surrounded by a calyx. The upper expands to form the renal pelvis within the renal sinus, and the renal pelvis has extensions called calyces.The filtration membrane is formed by the glomerulus capillaries, the basement membrane, and the podocytes of Bowmons capsule. Also, the blood flows through the kidney.

An adult kidney is about 12cm(5 inches) long, 6cm(2.5 inches) wide, and 3 cm (1 inch) thick, about the size of a large bar of soap. It is convex laterally and has a medical indentation called the renal bilus. Atop each kidney is an adrenal gland, which is a part of the endocrine system and is a distinctly separate organ functionally. A fibrous, transparent renal capsule encloses each kidney and gives a fresh kidney a glistening appearance. The adipose capsule, surrounds each kidney and helps hold it in place against the muscles of the trunk wall. If the amount of fatty tissue dwindles(as with rapid weight loss), the kidneys may drop to a lower position, a condition called Ptosis. Ptosis, creates problems if the ureters, which drain urine from the kidney, become kinked. When this happens, urine can no longer pass through the ureters backs up and exerts pressure on the kidney tissue called Hydronephrosis, can severely damage the kidney.

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Renal Cortex
It is the outer region when a kidney is cut lengthwise. Deep to the cortex is a reddish- brown area, the renal medulla. The medulla has many basically triangular regions with a stripped appearance, the medullary pyramids. The broader base of each pyramid faces towards the cortex; its tip, the apex, points toward the inner region of the kidney. The pyramids are separated by extensions of cortex-like tissure, the renal columns.

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Renal Pelvis
The pelvis is continuous with the ureter leaving the hilus. Extensions of the pelvis, calyces, forms cup- shaped areas that enclose the tips of the pyramids. The calyces collect urine, which continuously drains from the tips of the pyramids into the renal pelvis.

Blood Supply
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Renal Artery- is the arterial supply of each kidney. As the renal artery approaches the hilus, it divides into segmental arteries. Once inside the pelvis, the segmental arteries break up into lobar arteries, each of which gives off several branches called interlobular arteries, which travel through the renal columns to reach the cortex. At the cortex- medulla junction, interlobular arteries gives off the arcuate arteries, which curve over the medullar pyramids. Small interlobular arteries then branch off the arcuate arteries and run outward to supply the cortical tissue.

Nephrons
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Is the functional unit of the kidney, which consists of an enlarged ending called a renal corpuscle, a proximal convoluted tubule, a loop of Henle, a distal convoluted tubule. The inner layeer of the capsule is made up of highly modified octopus-like cells called podocytes. Podocytes have long branching processes called foot processes that interwine with one another and cling to the glomerulus.

Two main structures: 1. Glomerulus- closed end of the renal tubule is enlarged and cup- shaped and completely surrounds the glomerulus. 2. Renal Tubule Different regions of the tubule: 1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule 2. Loop of Henle 3. Distal Convoluted Tubule - Most nephrons are called cortical nephrons because they are located almost entirely within the cortex.

In a few cases, the nephrons are called juxtamedullary nephrons because they are situated close to the cortex- medulla junction, and their loops of Henle dip deep into the medulla. The collecting ducts, each of which receives urine from many nephrons, run downward through the medullarly pyramids, giving them their strpped appearance. Afferent Arteriole- arises from an interlobular artery, is the feeder vessel and the efferent arteriole receives blood that has passed through the glomerulus. The second capillary bed, the peritubulas capillaries, arises from the efferent arteriole that drains the glomerulus.

Urine Formation
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process: 1. Filtration 2. Tubular Reabsorption 3. Tubular Secretion

Filtration
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Is a nonselective, passive process. The filtrate that is formed is essentially blood plasma without blood proteins. Both proteins and blood cells are normally too large to pass through the filtration membrane, and when either of these appear in the urine, it is a pretty fair bet that there is a some problem with the glomerular filters. If artificial blood pressure drops too low, the glomerular pressure becomes inadequate to force substances out of the blood into the tubules, and filtrate formation stops. Oliguria, it is between 100 and 400ml/day, and anuria if it is less than 100ml/day. Low urinary output usually indicates that glomerular blood pressure is too low to cause filtration, but anuria may also result from transfusion reactions and acute inflammation or from crush injuries of the kidneys.

Tubular Reabsorption
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Tubular reabsorption begins as soon as the filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule. The tubule cells are transporters, taking up needed substances from the filtrate and then passing them out their posterior aspect into the extracellular space, from which they are absorbed into peritubular capillary blood.

Urea- formed by the liver as an end product of protein breakdown when amino acids are used to produce energy; uric acids, released when nucleic acids are metabolized; and creatinine associated with creatine metabolism in muscle tissue.

Tubular Secretion
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Is essentially reabsorption in reverse. Hydrogen and potassium ions and creatinine, also move from the blood of the pertitubular capillaries through the tubule cells or from the tubule cells themselves into the filtrate to be eliminated in urine.

Characteristics of Urine
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Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and unneeded substances. Freshly voided urine is generally clear and pale yellow. The normal yellow color is due to urochrome, a pigment that results from the bodys destruction of hemoglobin. The deeper yellow is a dilute urine with pale and straw color. Urine may have a color other than yellow, this might be the result of eating certain foods or the presence of bile or blood in the urine. Urine is sterile, and its odor is slightly aromatic. Some drugs, vegetables, and various disease alter the usual odor of urine.

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Ureters
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Are two slender tubes each measures from 25 to 30 cm long and 6mm in diameter. Each ureter runs behind the peritoreum from the reval hilum to the posterios aspect of the bladder. Superior end of each ureter is continuous with the pelvis of the kidney, and its mucosal lining is continuous with that lining the renal pelvis and the bladder below. Are passageways that carry urine from the kidney to the bladder Plays a active role in urine transport Smooth muscle layers contract in their walls to propel urine into the bladder by peristalsis

Homeostatic Imbalance: Ureters

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Renal Calculi (Kidney Stones) These are crystals that form when urine becomes extremely concentrated. Excruciating pain that radiates to the flank occurs when the ureter walls close in on the sharp calculi as they are being eased through the ureter by peristalsis or when the calculi become wedged in a ureter.

Urinary Bladder
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Is a smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that stores urine temporarily. It is located retroperitoneally in the pelvis just posterior to the pubic symphysis. 3 openings: two ureter openings (ureteral orifices) single opening of urethra (internal urethral orifices) drains the bladder. Trigone smooth triangular region of the bladder base outlined by the three openings important clinically because infections tend to persist in this region. Prostate gland (in males) surround the neck of the bladder where it empties into the urethra -Its bladder wall contains 3 layers of smooth muscle (Detrusor Muscle), its mucosa is a special type of epithelium(Transitional Epithilium). These features make the bladder uniquely suited for its function of urine storage.

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Female: Urinary Bladder

Male: Urinary Bladder

Urethra
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Is a thin- walled tube that carries urine by peristalsis from the bladder to the outside of the body. Internal urethral sphincter- thickening of the smooth muscle at the bladder- urethra External urethral sphincter- fashioned by skeletal muscle as the urethra passes trough the pelvic floor. Urethris- can easily ascend the tract to cause bladder inflammation or even kidney inflammation. Male urethra is approximately 20cm(8 inches) long and has three named regions, the prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethrae.

Micturition or Voiding
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Act of emptying the bladder. Two sphincters, or valves, the internal urethral sphincter control the flow of urine from the bladder. Ordinarily, the bladder continues to collect urine until 200ml have accumulated. At this point, stretching of the bladder walls activates stretch receptors. Impulses transmitted to sacral region of the spinal cord and then back to the bladder via the pelvic splanchnic nerves cause the bladder to go into reflex contractions. After 200- 300ml more have been collected, the micturition reflex occurs again. Incontinence- occurs when we are unable to voluntarily control the external sphincter. It is normal in children 2 years old or younger, because they have not yet gained control over their voluntarily sphincter. Urinary retention- opposite of incontinence. Condition in which the bladder is unable to expel its contained urine.

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Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid- Base Balance Acidy 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Blood composition depends on 3 major factors: Diet Cellular Metabolism Urine Output In general, the kidneys have four major roles to play, which can help keep the blood composition relatively constant. Excretion of nitrogen containing waste, maintaining Water Electrolyte balance of the blood. Ensuring proper blood pH.

Maintaining Water and Electrolyte Balance of Blood

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Water accounts for half or more of your body weight- 50% in females and about 60% in male. These differences reflect the fact that females have relatively less muscle and a larger amount of body fat. Babies with little fat and low bone mass, are about 75% water, but total body water content declines through life and accounts for only about 45% of body weight in old age. Water occupies 3 main locations within the body: Fluid Compartments

- About 2/3 of body fluid, the so called intracellular fluid(ICF), is contained with in the living cells. The remainder, called Extracellular Fluid(ECF), includes all body fluids located outside the cells.

Link between Water and Salt

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Water certainly accounts for nearly the entire volume of body liquids, regardless of type, and all body fluids are similar, but there is more to fluid balance than just water The types and amounts of solutes in body fluids, especially electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and calcium ions, are also vitally important to overall body homeostasis, and water and electrolyte balance are tightly linked as the kidneys continuously process the blood. Electrolyte Balance, the solute concentrations in the various fluid compartments, cause water to move from one compartment to another. If the body is to remain properly hydrated, we cannot lose more water than we take in.

Maintaining Acid- Base Balance of Blood Acidy

For the cells of the body to function properly, blood pH must be maintained between 7.35 and 7.45, a very narrow range. Whenever a pH of arterial blood rises above 7.45, a person is said to have Alkalosis. A drop in arterial pH to below 7.35 results in Acidosis. An any arterial pH between 7.35 and 7.0 is called Physiological Acidosis. Although small amounts of acidic substances enter the body in ingested foods, most hydrogen ions originate ass by-products of cellular metabolism, which continuously adds substances to the blood that tend to disturb its acid- base balance.

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Zoology: Anatomy and Physiology Group 4: Bantay, Bantay, Jennifer Ruiz, Myi- Myi MyiAhmad, Mistley Jane