Training and Development

Human Resource Management

Overview
y Models of Learning
y Reinforcement Theories y Cybernetic & Information Theories y Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving y Experiential Learning Cycle

y The learner and the organisation : transfer y Model of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) :

individual and organisational levels of analysis y Special training and development needs : diversity management

Learning

Training and developmental activities are designed to bring about changes in behaviour Arnold, Cooper & Robertson (1998)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience Bass & Vaughan (1966)
y How do we learn ? Psychological theories...

Reinforcement Theories
y Pavlov (1904) Classical Conditioning making dogs dribble y Skinner (1965) Operant Conditioning teaching pigeons ping-pong

y Watson & Rayner (1920) little Albert y Nord (1969) application of Skinner s positive reinforcement principles to org./mgmt practices y N.B. Conditioning by punishment ?

Cybernetic & Information Theories

How information is received and monitored ( human thermostats - Stammers & Patrick, 1975)
Power Source (muscular action) Monitoring Process (receipt of cues through the senses) Feedback
Skills Analysis - what cues or stimuli an experienced worker is being guided by (e.g. typist : hunt & peck)

Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving

y Reflect the way in which we learn to recognise and define problems or experiment to find solutions
trial & error y deductive reasoning y information seeking
y

y Kohler (1973) Theory of Insight Learning or Discovery Learning (e.g. Chimps, bananas and sticks or Archimedes Eureka!! )

Gagn s Hierarchy of Learning

y 8 major varieties of learning, hierarchically related, each building on earlier, more simple abilities (which therefore act as prerequisites for more complex abilities)
y y y y y y y y

Signal Learning (classical conditioning) Stimulus-Response Learning (operant conditioning) Chaining (connecting sequence of 2+ S-R units) Verbal Association (learning verbal chains) Discrimination Learning (different responses to similar stimuli) Concept Learning (common response to different stimuli in gp) Rule Learning (a chain of 2 or more concepts I.e. if A then B ) Problem Solving (recombining old rules into new ones)

Experiential Learning
Kolb (1974) : Learning Cycle
Concrete Testing implications of concepts in new situations experience Observations & Reflections

Formation of abstract concepts & generalisations

Honey & Mumford (1986, 1992) : Learning Styles

activist : open-minded, actively involved, bored with implementation y reflector : ponder experiences, cautious, back-seat, bigger picture y theorist : adapt & integrate observations, vertical, logical, hierarchical y pragmatist : try out new ideas to see if they work in practice
y

The Learner-Organisation Interaction (I)

y Learner Motivation
y

Otto & Glaser (1970) : taxonomy of motivational factors in learning : achievement motivation, anxiety, approval, curiosity, acquisitiveness

y Knowledge of results (feedback)

form of reinforcement y Extrinsic KR y Intrinsic KR y Learning curves & plateau
y

y Attitude formation & change

predispose learners to action y having harmonious attitudes (Festinger s concept of cognitive dissonance, 1957) y group discussion, providing new information
y

The Learner-Organisation Interaction (II) Age

y less brain cells, speeded performance declines y short-term memory deteriorates (increased y y

y y y

errors in cognitively complex tasks) Welford (1962) older less able to cope with large amounts of information and vocab. and comprehension increase (reasoning and numerical ability test scores decreased) Vernon (1960) rate of decline slowest in originally high scorers. Stimulation Education & Training offset decline in abilities

Transfer
y Training transfer occurs when new learning is used in new settings beyond those employed for training purposes (Arnold, Cooper & Robertson, 1998) y Positive Learning Transfer
when learning that has already taken place on one task assists later learning on another y vertical positive transfer : one subject acts as a basis for another (e.g. maths to statistics) y lateral positive transfer : occurs when the same type of stimulus requires the same response (e.g. flight simulators) y N.B. On- vs Off-the-job Training
y

y Negative Transfer
y

when an old learning or past experience can hinder performance on a new task; when the same stimuli requires a different response (e.g. driving on right hand side)

Individual y Understanding of general principles y facilitated by discovery learning; issue of physical and psychological fidelity y Overlearning y practising beyond the level of minimum competence y Association y getting the trainee to associate new learning with other, previous, learning. Organisational y Supportive culture ? y Congruent norms/values/attitudes

Factors that assist Transfer

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Introduction to Training
Training is the systematic process of altering employee behavior in a way that will achieve organizational goals
 It should be related to present job skills and abilities  It helps employees master the specific skills and abilities needed to be successful

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Introduction to Training
A training program is an opportunity for employees to acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge
 Learning is the act by which an individual acquires skills, knowledge, and abilities that result in a relatively permanent change in behavior  Any behavior that has been learned is a skill  Motor, cognitive, and interpersonal skills are training targets
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Intr

ti n

Training and development are processes that provide employees with:

 Information  Skills  An understanding of the organization and its goals  The ability to make positive contributions in the form of good performance

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High-Leverage Training
y Linked to strategic goals and objectives y Uses an instructional design process to ensure that

training is effective y Compares or benchmarks the company s training programs against training programs in other companies y Creates working conditions that encourage continuous learning

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What is Management Development?

Development that uses behavioral science knowledge to deal with problems of change

 It is a continuous process in the most effective firms

Management development should be planned because it requires:

   

Systematic diagnosis Development of a program The mobilization of resources Top-management commitment for success

There is no best development approach

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Training & Development

y Training & development
y Represents ongoing investment in employees, and

recognition that employees are assets y Importance of training & development y Rapid technological changes cause skill obsolescence y Redesign of work brings need for new skills y Mergers and acquisitions have increased need for integrating employees into different cultures y Globalization of business requires new knowledge and skills

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Benefits of Training & Development

y Individual employee
y Increased employee marketability y Increased employee employability security

y Organization
y Improved bottom line, efficiency and profitability y Increased flexibility in employees who can assume different

and varied responsibilities y Makes employees more accountable for results

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Employee Training
Determining training needs Specific training goals should be based on:
 organizations needs  type of work to be done  skills necessary to complete the work

Indicators of need for more training:

   

drops in productivity increased rejects inadequate job performance rise in the number of accidents
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Principals of Learning
Learner Attention
 Importance/Relevance to job

Positive Reinforcement/Corrective Feedback Transfer of Learning Knowledge of Progress Practice

 Whole vs Part

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Learning Theory and Training

earning principles can be applied to job training:
The trainee must be motivated to learn The trainee must be able to learn The learning must be reinforced The training must provide for practice of the material  The material presented must be meaningful  The material must be communicated effectively  The training taught must transfer to the job
   
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Training Process
Identify Training Needs Set Training Objectives
 Evaluation Criteria

Choose Training Materials and Methods Conduct Training Evaluate Training

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Needs Assessment
Needs assessment is a process used to determine if, and what type of, training is necessary
 Organizational analysis: examining a firms mission, resources, and goals  Person analysis: determining who needs training and their readiness for training  Task analysis: identification of the tasks, knowledge, skill, and behaviors that should be included in a training program

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Levels of Needs Assessment

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Assessing Current Employees Training Needs

Assessment Center Results Performance Appraisals

Individual Diaries

Methods for Identifying Training Needs

Job-Related Performance Data

Attitude Surveys

Observations

Tests
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Interviews
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Needs Assessment
The information gathering provides a profile of:  What type of training is needed  Who should be trained  When training should be conducted  Whether training is the preferred approach Instructional objectives lead to the selection and design of instructional programs:  If assessment and program design are done carefully, training and development can be monitored and evaluated
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Training Needs and Objectives

Needs assessment involves analyzing:
 The organizations needs  The knowledge, skill, and ability needed to perform the job  The person or jobholders needs  The firms long- and short-term objectives

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Instructional Methods

This phase of training includes:

 Selection of content and training methods  The actual training
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On The Job Training Methods

y Job instruction training (JIT) y Coaching y Mentoring y Job rotation y Apprenticeship training y Committee assignments

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Off The Job Training Methods

y Vestibule training y Role playing y Lecture method y Conference or discussion method y Programmed instruction

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Methods of executive development

1.Decision-making skills (a)In-basket (b)Business game (c)Case study (a)Role play (b)Sensitivity training (c) Be aviour Modelling (a) On-t e-job experiences (b) 4.Organisational 5.General kno w le d ge (a) (a) (b) (c) 6.Specific individual need s (a) (b)
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2.Interpersonal skills

3.Job

kn o w le dge

Coac ing Job rotation Special courses

(c) Understudy

kno w ledg e

Special meetings Specific readings Special projects Committee assignments

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On-The-Job Training
This is the most widely used method of training
 Although OJT is simple and relatively inexpensive, hidden costs can include: Damaged machinery Unsatisfied customers Misfiled forms Poorly taught workers

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Computer-Based Instruction
y Benefits y Self-paced y Adaptive to different needs y Can be customized y Easy to deliver y Usually less expensive to administer y Can be conducted when convenient for employee y Drawbacks y Learners must be selfmotivated y Cost of producing online, interactive materials y Lack of interaction with others may work against needs and preferred learning styles

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Case Method
The case method uses a written description of a real decision-making situation

 Managers are asked to study the case in order to:

Identify the problems Analyze the problems Propose solutions Choose the best solution Implement it
More learning takes place if there is interaction with the instructor

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Role Playing
 Each person is assigned a role in a situation and is asked to react to other players role-playing  The player is asked to react to the stimuli as that person would  Players are provided with background information on the situation and the players  A script is usually provided The success of this method depends on the ability of the players to play the assigned roles believably  Role-playing can help a manager become more aware of, and more sensitive to, the feelings of others
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In-Basket Technique
The participant is given typical items from a specific managers mail, email, and telephone list  Important and pressing matters are mixed in with routine business matters The trainee is analyzed and critiqued on:  The number of decisions made in the time allotted  The quality of the decisions  The priorities chosen for making them To generate interest, in-basket materials must be:  Realistic, job-related, and not impossible to make decisions on Resource Management Human 39

Behavior Modeling
There are four steps in this process:
Modeling of effective behavior (films) Role playing Social reinforcement (role playing) Transfer of training to the job

Modeling offers promise for developing leadership skills, if used in conjunction with videotape methods
Research evidence is generally positive
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Programmed Learning
Presenting questions, facts, or problems to the learner Allowing the person to respond Providing feedback on the accuracy of answers

Advantages
   

Reduced training time Self-paced learning Immediate feedback Reduced risk of error for learner
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Choosing the Best T&D Method

y Choice of delivery method depends on: y Organizational culture and values y T&D objective and content y Profiles of trainees and trainers y Financial and technological resource availability y Time y Location

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Choosing the Best T&D Method

y Developments occurring with regard to

delivery methods
y Shift toward on-the-job training y Increased efficiency y Exploitation of technology to aid learning y Increased emphasis on teams y Focus on mentoring
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Evaluation
y Integral part of overall training program y Provides feedback on effectiveness of

training program y Evaluation criteria should be established in tandem with and parallel to training objectives

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Four Levels of Training Evaluation

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Impediments to Effective T & D

Commitment lacking Inadequate budget allocation Universities award only degrees, not skills Poaching of trained workers

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