Chapter 4

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Made By-Shekhar Singh Class-X

index

INTRODUCTION
In mathematics, a quadratic equation is a polynomial equation of the second degree. The general form is

where x represents a variable, and a, b, and c, constants, with a 0. (If a = 0, the equation becomes a linear equation.) The constants a, b, and c, are called respectively, the quadratic coefficient, the linear coefficient and the constant term or free term. The term "quadratic" comes from quadratus, which is the Latin word for "square". Quadratic equations can be solved by factoring, completing the square, graphing, Newton's method, and using the quadratic formula (given below). One common use of quadratic equations is computing trajectories in projectile motion. Another common use is in electronic amplifier design for control of step response and stability.

DISCRIMINANT
In the above formula, the expression underneath the square root sign is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation, and is often represented using an upper case Greek delta, the initial of the Greek word , Diakrnousa, discriminant: A quadratic equation with real coefficients can have either one or two distinct real roots, or two distinct complex roots. In this case the discriminant determines the number and nature of the roots. There are three cases: If the discriminant is positive, then there are two distinct roots, both of which are real numbers: and For quadratic equations with integer coefficients, if the discriminant is a perfect square, then the roots are rational numbers in other cases they may be quadratic irrationals. If the discriminant is zero, then there is exactly one distinct real root, sometimes called a double root: If the discriminant is negative, then there are no real roots. Rather, there are two distinct (non-real) complex roots, which are complex conjugates of each other: and where i is the imaginary unit. Thus the roots are distinct if and only if the discriminant is non-zero, and the roots are real if and only if the discriminant is non-negative.

GEOMETRY
The solutions of the quadratic equation are also the roots of the quadratic function:

since they are the values of x for which

If a, b, and c are real numbers and the domain of f is the set of real numbers, then the roots of f are exactly the x-coordinates of the points where the graph touches the x-axis. It follows from the above that, if the discriminant is positive, the graph touches the x-axis at two points, if zero, the graph touches at one point, and if negative, the graph does not touch the x-axis.

Quadratic Factorization
The term is a factor of the polynomial

if and only if r is a root of the quadratic equation

It follows from the quadratic formula that

In the special case (b2 = 4ac) where the quadratic has only one distinct root (i.e. the discriminant is zero), the quadratic polynomial can be factored as

APPLICATION TO HIGHERHIGHERDIGREE EQUATION

Certain higher-degree equations can be brought into quadratic form and solved that way. For example, the 6th-degree equation in x:

can be rewritten as:

or, equivalently, as a quadratic equation in a new variable u:

where

Solving the quadratic equation for u results in the two solutions:

Thus

The Bakhshali Manuscript written in India in the 7th century AD contained an algebraic formula for solving quadratic equations, as well as quadratic indeterminate equations (originally of type ax/c = y). Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (Persia, 9th century), inspired by Brahmagupta, developed a set of formulas that worked for positive solutions.[4] Al-Khwarizmi goes further in providing a full solution to the general quadratic equation, accepting one or two numerical answers for every quadratic equation, while providing geometric proofs in the process.[6] He also described the method of completing the square and recognized that the discriminant must be positive,[7] which was proven by his contemporary 'Abd al-Ham d ibn Turk (Central Asia, 9th century) who gave geometric figures to prove that if the discriminant is negative, a quadratic equation has no solutionAb K mil Shuj ibn Aslam in particular was the first to accept irrational numbers as solutions to quadratic equations or as coefficients in an equation. The Jewish mathematician Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi (12th century, Spain) authored the first European book to include the full solution to the general quadratic equation.[12] His solution was largely based on Al-Khwarizmi's work.[13] The writing of the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui (1238-1298 AD) represents the first in which quadratic equations with negative coefficients of 'x' appear, although he attributes this to the earlier Liu Yi. By 1545 Gerolamo Cardano compiled the works related to the quadratic equations. The quadratic formula covering all cases was first obtained by Simon Stevin in 1594.The first appearance of the general solution in the modern mathematical literature appeared in a 1896 paper by Henry Heaton.

HISTORY

DARIVATION-BY COMPLITING THE SQUARE

The quadratic formula can be derived by the method of completing the square,[16] so as to make use of the algebraic identity: Dividing the quadratic equation

by a (which is allowed because a is non-zero), gives:

or

The quadratic equation is now in a form to which the method of completing the square can be applied. To "complete the square" is to add a constant to both sides of the equation such that the left hand side becomes a complete square:

which produces

The right side can be written as a single fraction, with common denominator 4a2. This gives

Taking the square root of both sides yields

Isolating x, gives

The quadratic formula can be derived by starting with equation

which describes the parabola as ax2 with the vertex shifted from the origin to (xV, yV). Solving this equation for x is straightforward and results in

Using Vite's formulas for the vertex coordinates

the values of x can be written as

DARIVATION -BY LAGRANGE RESOLVENTS

An alternative way of deriving the quadratic formula is via the method of Lagrange resolvents, which is an early part of Galois theory. A benefit of this method is that it generalizes to give the solution of cubic polynomials and quartic polynomials, and leads to Galois theory, which allows one to understand the solution of polynomials of any degree in terms of the symmetry group of their roots, the Galois group. This approach focuses on the roots more than on rearranging the original equation. Given a monic quadratic polynomial

assume that it factors as

Expanding yields

where

and

ALTERNATIVE FORMULA
In some situations it is preferable to express the roots in an alternate form. This alternative requires c to be nonzero; for, if c is zero, the formula correctly gives zero as one root, but fails to give any second, non-zero root. Instead, one of the two choices for produces the indeterminate form 0/0, which is undefined. However, the alternative form works when a is zero (giving the unique solution as one root and division by zero again for the other), which the normal form does not (instead producing division by zero both times). The roots are the same regardless of which expression we use; the alternate form is merely an algebraic variation of the common form:

FLOATING POINT IMPLEMENTATION

A careful floating point computer implementation differs a little from both forms to produce a robust result. Assuming the discriminant, b2 4ac, is positive and b is nonzero, the code will be something like the following:

Here sgn(b) is the sign function, where sgn(b) is 1 if b is positive and 1 if b is negative; its use ensures that the quantities added are of the same sign, avoiding catastrophic cancellation. The computation of x2 uses the fact that the product of the roots is c/a.

VIETES FORMULAS
Vite's formulas give a simple relation between the roots of a polynomial and its coefficients. In the case of the quadratic polynomial, they take the following form: and

These results follow immediately from the relation:

which can be compared term by term with:

The first formula above yields a convenient expression when graphing a quadratic function. Since the graph is symmetric with respect to a vertical line through the vertex, when there are two real roots the vertex s x-coordinate is located at the average of the roots (or intercepts). Thus the x-coordinate of the vertex is given by the expression:

The y-coordinate can be obtained by substituting the above result into the given quadratic equation, giving

GENERALIZATION
The formula and its derivation remain correct if the coefficients a, b and c are complex numbers, or more generally members of any field whose characteristic is not 2. (In a field of characteristic 2, the element 2a is zero and it is impossible to divide by it.) The symbol

in the formula should be understood as "either of the two elements whose square is b2 4ac, if such elements exist". In some fields, some elements have no square roots and some have two; only zero has just one square root, except in fields of characteristic 2. Note that even if a field does not contain a square root of some number, there is always a quadratic extension field which does, so the quadratic formula will always make sense as a formula in that extension field.

GENERALIZATIONGENERALIZATION-

CHARACTERISTIC2
In a field of characteristic 2, the quadratic formula, which relies on 2 being a unit, does not hold. Consider the monic quadratic polynomial over a field of characteristic 2. If b = 0, then the solution reduces to extracting a square root, so the solution is

and note that there is only one root since

In summary,

See quadratic residue for more information about extracting square roots in finite fields. In the case that b 0, there are two distinct roots, but if the polynomial is irreducible, they cannot be expressed in terms of square roots of numbers in the coefficient field. Instead, define the 2-root R(c) of c to be a root of the polynomial x2 + x + c, an element of the splitting field of that polynomial. One verifies that R(c) + 1 is also a root. In terms of the 2-root operation, the two roots of the (non-monic) quadratic ax2 + bx + c are

and

MADE BY-SHEKHAR SINGH CLASS-X