CHAPTER 2 ALGEBRA

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter students should be able to Solve any problems of algebraic operations, indices, brackets and factorisation Work out with practical applications of linear equations and simultaneous equations

Introduction
The history of algebra began in ancient Egypt and Babylon, where people learned to solve linear and quadratic equations, as well as indeterminate equations such as x2 + y2 = z2, whereby several unknowns are involved. The ancient Babylonians solved arbitrary quadratic by essentially the same procedures taught today. They also could solve some indeterminate equations.

 In the 9th century, the Arab mathematician al Khwarizmi wrote one of the first Arabic algebras, a systematic expos of the basic theory of equations, with both examples and proofs. By the end of the 9th century, the Egyptian mathematician Abu Kamil had stated and proved the basic laws and identities of algebra and solved such complicated problems as finding x, y, and z such that x + y + z = 10, x2 + y2 = z2, and xz = y2.

 An important development in algebra in the 16th century was the introduction of symbols for the unknown and for algebraic powers and operations. As a result of this development, Book III of La gometrie (1637), written by the French mathematician Ren Descartes, looks much like a modern algebra text. However, his discovery of analytic geometry, which reduces the solution of geometric problems to the solution of algebraic ones. His geometry text also contained the essentials of a course on the theory of equations, including his so-called rule of signs for counting the number of what Descartes called the "true" (positive) and "false" (negative) roots of an equation.

Al Khwarizmi

Rene Descartes

Definition
Algebra is the branch of mathematics which uses +ve and ve quantities, letters and other symbols to express and analyze relationships among units of quantitative data. The process of algebra enables us to make calculations and arrive solutions which would be difficult through normal arithmetic methods.

All mathematical systems beyond arithmetic employ the methods of algebra for computation. Aviation maintenance technicians use many algebraic formulas and expressions on a daily basis. In many cases these operations have become so routine that many do not realize that algebra is being used.

The formula for finding the force on a hydraulic piston may be expressed F=P/A, where F is force in pounds, A is area of the piston in square inches and P is the pressure of the fluid in pounds per square inch. In computing the weight and balance of an aircraft, the technician is not only working with algebra formulas but with +ve and ve quantities.

Most computations involving these operations have been simplified to where the problem can be solved by placing the proper numbers into the formula. However, a knowledge of algebra is essential for the technician to understand what is happening in the procedure or system.

2.1 Basic Operations, Laws of Indices, Brackets & Factorisation

Basic Operations
(i) Addition (ii) Subtraction

2a  a ! ( a  a )  a ! 3a 2a  a ! ( a  a )  a ! a
2a v a ! 2 v a v a ! 2a
2

(iii) Multiplication (iv) Division

2a 2a z a ! !2 a

Example
1. Find the value of 2ab 3bc + abc, when a=2, b=5, c=1. Solution: Replacing a, b and c with numbers gives:

2 v 2 v 5 3 v 5 v1  2 v 5 v 1 ! 20 15  10 ! 15

Example
2. Subtract 2a + 4b 3c from a 2b + 8c. Solution: a 2b + 8c (2a + 4b 3c) = a 6b +11c

Example
3. Multiply Answer:

2 p  3q  4 p q

by

2 p  3

! 4 p  6 pq  8 p q  6 p  9q 12 pq
2 2 2

! 4 p 18 pq  8 p q  6 p  9q
2

Example
4. Perform Solution:

2 6 z 2 x x y
2

2 6 2 x y xy z 2 ! v ! x x y x 6 3

Index
The word index (plural: indices) is used in variety of senses in mathematics. Index meaning exponent, the power to which some base is raised.

Laws of indices

a a !a
m n

mn

a mn !a n a

(a ) ! a
m n

mn

a ! a
n

m n

Example
1. Simplify a 2b3c v ab 2 c 3 Solution:

! a vavb vb vcvc
2 3 2

! a vb vc ! a b c
3 5 4

3 5 4

Example
2. Simplify Solution:

p q pq  p q
2 1 2

pq pq pq2  p q
1 2 2

pq pq2  p q pq
1 2 1 2

1 2

p
1 2

3 2

p q 1

Brackets
(a) Addition

a+(b+c) a - (b+c)
.

(b) Subtraction

(c) Multiplication (d) Division

2(a+b)(c-d)
(a  b ) 2 (c  d )
2

Example
1. Simplify 4a  2 _ 2a  4b  2 a  5b a a  Solution: ! 4a  2 _2a  4b  2a  10ba a
! 4a  ?4a  8b  4a  20b  a A ! 4a  4a  8b  4a  20b  a ! 3a  28b

Discussion

Factorisation
When 2 or more terms in an algebraic expression contain a common factor, then this factor can be shown out side a bracket.
.

4ax  2ay ! 2a 2 x  2a y

! 2 a(2 x  y)

Example
Factorize and get the solution: (1) x2 7x + 12 = 0 Solution (x - 3) (x - 4) = 0 x 3 = 0 or x 4 = 0 x = 3 or x = 4 Solution set: _ x: x = 3 or x = 4a

Example
2. Factorize: x3  2x2  x  2 Solution: x ( x  2)  1( x  2) ! x ( x  2)  ( x  2)
2 2

! ( x  1)( x  2)
2

2.2 Equations
* Linear Equations * Quadratic Equations * Cubic Equations

An equation is simply a statement that two quantities are equal. Sometimes an equation contains an unknown quantity which is represented by a symbol, say x

3x=15

A simple equation of the 1st degree

Simple Linear Equations

Simple linear equations are those in which an unknown quantity is raised only to the power 1. To solve a simple linear equation, the equality of the equation must be maintained.

LHS = RHS
Examples

Simultaneous Equations
Simultaneous equations contains 2 or more unknown quantity. There are 2 methods to solve a simultaneous equation:

by substitution by elimination

EXAMPLE
Solve the following equations by using substitution and elimination method:

2x  y ! 2 4 x  2 y ! 1

Substitution Method:
y ! 2x  2 4 x  2 2 x  2 ! 1 4x  4x  4 1 ! 0 8x ! 3 3 x! 8

2x  y ! 2 4 x  2 y ! 1

Elimination Method:

2x  y ! 2 4 x  2 y ! 1

4x  2 y ! 4 add 4 x  2 y ! 1 8x ! 3 3 x! 8

Discussion
Solve the following equations by using substitution and elimination method: 3x - 6y = 12 2x + 8y = 6

EXERCISES

Exercises

Exercises

Factorize:

1) 2 x  24 2) x  2 x  15
2 2

Exercises

3) p

p

2

4) x  3
2

5) x  4
2

Exercises
6. Solve the following equation using elimination method

8 x  3 y ! 39

7 x  3 y ! 4
7. Solve the following equation using substitution method

4 x  3 y ! 18 2x  2 y ! 1

LECTURE 2

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter students should be able to Understand the concept of straight line equation Solve any problem based on distance, midpoint, gradient, parallel and perpendicular lines.

STRAIGHT LINE

Remark :
1. Any point on the xaxis has coordinates of the form (x,0)
Y

(2,0)
2 X

2. Any point on the yaxis has coordinates of the form (0,y)

Y 2 X

(0,2)

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Y y2 B(x2,y2) y2 y1 y1 A(x1,y1) x2 x1 O x1 x2 x

Distance of BC

C(x2,y1)

Distance of AC

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Y B y2 y1 A x2 x 1
O

C
x

By using the Pythagoras Theorem,

AB
AB

2
2

= AC

+ BC

= (x 2  x 1 )2  ( y 2  y 1 )2

AB =

( x 2  x 1 )2  ( y 2  y 1 )2

Example 1 : Find the distance between the points (a) A(4,8) (b) P(4,6) , B(10,12) , Q(-1,-2)

Solution : (a) A(4,8)

(x1, y1)

B(10,12)
(x2, y2)
2 2

AB ! ( x2  x1 )  ( y2  y1 ) ! ( 10  4 )  ( 12  8 )
2 2

! (6 ) ( 4 )
2

! 52

4 v 13

! 2 13

Solution : (b) P(4,6)

(x2, y2)
2

Q(-1,-2)
(x1, y1)
2

PQ ! ( x2  x1 )  ( y2  y1 )
2

! [4  (1)]  [6  (2)]
! (5)  (8 )
! 89
2 2

MIDMID-POINT OF A STRAIGHT LINE

Let A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)

The mid-point of AB

x1  x2 y1  y2 , ! 2 2

Example 2 : Find the coordinates of the mid point of the straight line joining each of the following pairs of points (a) A(4,8) , B(10,12) (b) P(4,6) , Q(-1,-8)

Solution : (a) A(4,8) , B(10,12)

(x1, y1) (x2, y2)

x 1  x 2 y1  y 2 , The mid-point of AB ! 2 2 4  10 8  12 ! , 2 2 !  ,10 7

Solution : (b) P(4,6) , Q(-1,-8)

(x1, y1) (x2, y2)

x 1  x 2 y1  y 2 , The mid-point of PQ ! 2 2 41 68 ! , 2 2

3 ! , 1 2

GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE

The gradient (slope) of a straight line joining A(x1,y1) and B(x2 ,y2) is given by
Y
B(x2,y2) y2 y1 A(x1,y1) x2 x 1 C(x2,y1)

@ m AB

y 2  y1 ! x 2  x1

Example 9 : Find the gradient of the line joining each of the following pairs of points

(a) P(5,4) (b) A(-2,1)

, ,

Q(2,10) B(1,4)

Solution : (a) P(5,4) , Q(2,10)

(x1, y1) (x2, y2)

Q(2,10) P(5,4)

Gradient PQ, m PQ

y 2  y1 ! x 2  x1
10  4 ! 25 6 ! 3 =-2

Solution :
(b) A(-2,1) , B(1,4) (x1, y1) (x2, y2) A(-2,1)

B(1,4)

Gradient AB, m AB

y 2  y1 ! x 2  x1 4 1 ! 1  ( 2 )
=1

EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

1. The equation of the line with gradient m and passing through the point (x1, y1) is
y

(x,y) (x1, y1)

x

y y1 = m(x x1)

2. The equation of the line that has gradient m and y intercept, c, is y (0,c) y = mx + c
x

EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

3.The equation of the line in intercept form
y

B(0,b)
x

x y  ! 1, a b
A(a, 0)

4.The general equation of straight line is where a, b, c are constant ax + by + c = 0 and a { 0 or b { 0

Tip : Usually to find an equation of a straight line, we need to find the gradient for the line.

Example 10 :
Find the equation of the straight line that has the following properties. (a) Slope 4 and passes through (2,3) (b) passes through A(2,-4) and B(-5,1)

Solution : (a) Slope 4 and passes through (2,3) Method 1 y = mx + c 3 = 4(2) + c c = -5 y = 4x - 5 4x-y 5 = 0 Method 2 y-y1= m(x-x1) y3 = 4(x-2) y3 = 4x-8 y = 4x - 5 4x-y 5 = 0

(b) passes through A(2,-4) and B(-5,1) Solution :

m AB

y 2  y1 ! x 2  x1
1  ( 4) ! 52 5 ! 7

A(2,-4) Method 1 y = mx + c
5  4 !  ( 2 ) c 7 18 c! 7 18 5 y! x 7 7 7 y ! 5 x  18

and

B(-5,1) Method 2 y-y1= m(x-x1)

5 y4 !  (x2) 7 7 ( y  4 ) ! 5 ( x  2 )

7 y  28 ! 5 x  4
5 x  7 y  18 ! 0

5 x  7 y  18 ! 0

Example 11 :
The equation of the line given 4x 2y = 3. a) Find the slope for this line b) Find the coordinates of the point where this line cuts the y axis

PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

1. The two straight lines are parallel if they have the same gradient. l1 m1 m1 = m2 l2 m2

2. The two straight line are perpendicular to each other if the product of their gradient is -1 l1 m1.m2 = -1 m1 m2 l2

Example 12 :
Given A(1,2), B(-4,3), P(0,6) and Q(-10,8). Show that AB is parallel to PQ.

Solution :
A(1,2), B(-4,3), P(0,6) and Q(-10,8) mAB 32 !  4 1 1 ! 5 mAB = mPQ
86 mPQ !  10  0 2 ! 10 1 ! 5

@ AB is parallel to PQ.

Example 13 :
Find the equation of the straight line that has the following properties. (a) passes through R(1,5) and is perpendicular to x + y + 15 = 0 (b) passes through C(2,8) and is parallel to x + 2y + 15 = 0

Solution : (a) passes through R(1,5) and is perpendicular to x + y + 15 = 0

y

R(1,5)

l 2 : x + y + 15 = 0
y = -x -15 y = mx + c

l1

m l 2 ! 1

But

ml1 ml 2 ! 1 ml1 ( 1 ) ! 1 m l1 ! 1

m l 2 ! 1

y ! ml 1 x  c
5 = 1 + c c=4 y = x + 4 x - y + 4 = 0

R( 1 , 5 )

(b) passes through C(2,8) and is parallel to x + 2y + 15 = 0

l1

l 2 : x + 2y + 15 = 0
1 15 y !  x 2 2 y = mx + c

But m l1 ! m l 2

1 ml 2 !  2 1 @ ml1 !  2

y ! ml 1 x  c
1 8 !  ( 2 ) c 2

C( 2 , 8 )

8 ! 1  c c!9
1 y !  x9 2 2 y !  x  18

x  2 y  18 ! 0

POINT OF INTERSECTION When two lines, l1 and l2 intersect, the point of intersection is found by solving the equations of l1 and l2 simultaneously

Example 15 : Find the intersection between the lines 2x + 3y = 5 and 3x + 4y = 6 Solution : By solving the simultaneous equations, We will get, x = -2 and y=3

EXERCISES

1)Find the distance and the mid-point of the following: a) A(-2,4) and B(4,1) b) C(0,-2) and D(-2,-5)

2) Find the gradient of the line joining each of the following pairs of points

(a) A(1,-2) (b) C(2,7)

, ,

B(3,1) D(0,-4)

3) Find the equation of the straight line that has the following properties.

(a) Slope -2 and passes through (1,5) (b) passes through A(-2,-4) and B(5,-1)

4) The equation of the line given x - 2y = 8. a) Find the slope for this line b) Find the coordinates of the point where this line cuts the y axis

5) Given A(-1,2), B(-4,3), P(0,6) and Q(-10,6). Check whether AB is parallel or perpendicular to PQ.

LECTURE 3

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter students should be able to Understand the concept of numeral system and perform the conversion Solve any problems based on logarithms

NUMERAL SYSTEM
In everyday life, we normally use a numbering system that is constructed on multiples of ten. We call this numbering system the Base-10 or decimal numbering system. Base-10 numbering systems dictate that the numbering scheme begins to repeat after the tenth digit (in our case, the number 9). When we count, we usually count "0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 , 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, ..."

NUMERAL SYSTEM
BASE 2 - 0, 1 (BINARY) BASE 3 - 0, 1, 2 BASE 8 - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 (OCTAL) BASE 10 - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (DECIMAL) BASE 16 - (HEXADECIMAL)

For right now, let's just consider digits to the left of the decimal, or positive numbers. Remember that the first digit to the left of the decimal point is called the "ones" digit. It is followed by the "tens" digit, followed by the "hundreds", followed by the "thousands", and on and on.

Number Position Name Exponential Expression Calculated Exponent

7 Thousands

4 Hundreds

0 Tens

8 Ones

103*7

102*4

101*0

100*8

1000*7

100*4

10*0

1*8

Table 1: Decimal Placeholders

Binary Numeral Systems

The binary numeral system, or base-2 number system, is a numeral system that represents numeric values using two symbols, usually 0 and 1. More specifically, the usual base 2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Owing to its straightforward implementation in electronic circuitry, the binary system is used internally by virtually all modern computers.

In binary system, the numbering scheme repeats after the second digit (the number 1). Let's count to five in binary: 0, 1, 10, 11, 100. Also like the decimal numbering system, binary numbering includes names for digit placeholders. Instead of "ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc.", binary has "ones, twos, fours, eights, sixteen, etc

Number Position Name

Eights

Fours

Twos

Ones

Exponential Expression

23*1

22*1

21*0

20*1

Calculated Exponent

8*1

4*1

2*0

1*1

Table 2: Binary Placeholders

A binary digit is called a bit. But the bit could represent on / off of an electrical circuit, yes / no, true / false, -1 / 0, -1 / +1, zero / non zero, or similar to state binary wording. A byte of memory can store a number in the range 00000000 to 11111111 binary. Numbers are often displayed in groups of 4, as follows, to make them easier to read. 0000 0000 to 1111 1111 binary.

Binary to Decimal Conversions

Q: Convert 1011 binary to decimal
Positional value Enter Number Required Calculatio n This equals 16 8 1 4 0 2 1 1 1

8x1

4x0

2x1

1x1

Add the 3 results 8 + 0 + 2 + 1

Therefore 1011 (One Zero One One) binary = 11 (Eleven) Denary

DISCUSSION
Convert to decimal/denary system: 1. 11110 2. 10011 3. 101101 4. 111001 5. 1101011

Decimal to Binary Conversions

1. Repeated division by 2 2. Binary Exponential Placeholders

Decimal to Binary Conversions

Convert 25 to binary number
2 25 1 2 12 0 2 6 0 2 30 2 11

DISCUSSION
Convert the following to binary: 1.27 2.39 3.44 4.15 5.30

The hexadecimal system is different from other systems in using a combination of both numbers and letters. It uses numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F,.... Hence base 16.. A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15.

Its primary purpose is to represent the binary code in a format easier for humans to read, and acts as a form of shorthand, in which one hexadecimal digit stands in place of four binary bits. For example, the decimal numeral 79, whose binary representation is 01001111, is 4F in hexadecimal (4 = 0100, F = 1111). IBM introduced the current hexadecimal system to the computing world; an earlier version, using the digits 09 and uz, had been introduced in 1956, and had been used by the Bendix G-15 computer.

Convert
7E in hexadecimal to binary 110111 in binary to hexadecimal 5F in hexadecimal to base 8 26 in base 8 to hexadecimal

LOGARITHMS
What is a logarithms? Right answer earns a special gift

LOGARITHMS
In mathematics, a logarithm of a given number to a given base is the power to which you need to raise the base in order to get the number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to the common base 10 is 3, because 10 raised to a power of 3 is 1000.

If a number x can be written in the form y b , then the index y is called the logarithm of x to the base b. In other words is equivalent to Example 4

y ! lo g b x

x ! b

3 ! 3 v 3 v 3 v 3 ! 81 log 3 81 ! 4

LOGARITHMS
1. Common Logarithms

log 1 0 15.4 10 -having a base of! 1.1875 log 0.0241 !  1.6179

2. Napierian/Natural Logarithms

-having a base of e log e 4.73 ! 1.5539 ln 0.7642 !  0.2689

RULES OF LOGARITHMS

lo g ( a v b ) ! lo g a  lo g b a lo g ! lo g a  lo g b b n lo g a ! n lo g a

EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate:

a ) lo g 1 0 1 0 0 0 b ) lo g 1 0 0 .0 0 0 0 1 c ) lo g 2 6 4 1 d ) lo g 5 125

2. If log 4.358 = 0.6393, find: a) log 435.8 b) log 0.004358

3. Given log 2.5 = 0.3979 and log 3.41 = 0.5328. Find the unknown: a) log a = 2.3979 b) log b = - 3 + 0.3979 c) log x = 1.5328 d) log y = -2 + 0.5328

Exercises
Convert to decimal 1. 1100001 2. 101101 3. 1111111

Exercises
Convert to binary: 1. 72 2. 201 3. 321

Exercises
Convert to decimal:

1234 5

3125

113 5

Convert to the base 5:

30410

7910

12610

Exercises
Convert to decimal:

3258
Convert to the base 8:

768 32410

57210

Exercises
Convert:
1. 2. 3. 4. 6D in hexadecimal to binary 11101 in binary to hexadecimal 3F in hexadecimal to base 8 65 in base 8 to hexadecimal

Exercises
Evaluate the following:

1)

3 1

2) 9
2 2

2 3

3) 16

4) 8 6) 9

2 3

5) 100

1

Exercises
Solve:

1) log 2 16 3) log13 13 5) log 2 0.5

1 2) log 3 9 4) log10 0.001 6) log 2 2

8

Simplify:
2 ) lo g 3 5  lo g 2 1 .8

Exercises

1) lo g 2 3  lo g 2 5  lo g 2 6 1 3 ) lo g 2  lo g 2 6 3 4 ) lo g 5 4  lo g 5 0 .2 5 5 ) lo g 3 6  lo g 3 2  lo g 3 2 .2 5

Evaluate: 1) 2 lo g 2 3  lo g 2 3 6

Exercises

2 ) 2 lo g 2 6  lo g 2 9 3)3 lo g 3 2  lo g 3 2 4 4 ) lo g 3 1 2  3 lo g 3 2  lo g 3 6

Exercises
Find the value of the logarithm:
log 32.43 if log 3.243 = 0.5109 1. log 51.76 if log 5.176 = 0.7140 2. log 825.7 if log 8.257 = 0.9168 3. log 0.6321 if log 6.321 = 0.8008 4. log 0.07358 if log 7.358 = 0.8668 5. Log 0.003423 if log 3.423 = 0.5344