Fermentation

What is Fermentation
Fermentation involves the action of desirable microorganisms, or their enzymes, on food ingredients to make biochemical changes, which cause significant modification to the food.  Often lactic-acid bacteria convert the carbohydrate energy source of food, such as lactose in milk, to lactic acid; examples are yogurt and cheeses from milk, and pickles from fruits and vegetables.  Alternatively, yeasts, often of the Saccharomyces species, may convert the glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide in leavened breads, or the sugars in grain or fruit beverages to beers and wines.  It is estimated that about one-third of all the food we consume is fermented. World estimates for beer consumption are about 22 million gallons, and a total of 15 million tons of some one thousand varieties of cheese are eaten annually.

Alcoholic fermentation Two stages:  Step 1: Glycolysis  Results in the production of 2 molecules of ATP  Step 2: Pyruvic acid is broken down into CO2 and alcohol  No ATP is produced in this stage  Total energy produced in both stages is 2 molecules of ATP  End products are CO2, alcohol, and 2 molecules of ATP  Used in the baking and brewing industry. This is the process which for example yeast use. When there is a lack of oxygen, the cells start to produce CO2 and alcohol as waste.  This is the reason why yeast is used in baking. Bread for example, wouldn't rise without yeast, but it does rise because yeast creates CO2 which makes it rise.

The smell that you get from baking, is from the alcohol burning off. The reason we do not get intoxicated when eating bread (because of the alcohol that is made from the fermentation) is because the alcohol is burned off during baking because of high temperatures.

Lactic Acid Fermentation Process occurs in two stages:  Stage 1. Glycolysis  Stage 2. Pyruvic acid is broken down into lactic acid  Occurs in the cytoplasm  Total products are 2 molecules of lactic acid and 2 molecules of ATP  Occurs in humans during periods of prolonged physical activity  Oxygen levels become very low in the muscles involved and lactic acid fermentation occurs

 When lactic acid builds up, the muscles become tired and a painful burning sensation occurs  Muscle will return to normal after rest  During rest lactic acid mixes with oxygen producing pyruvic acid which will be broken down into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.  This lactic acid fermentation is responsible for the sour taste of dairy products such as cheese, yogurt and kefir.  Lactic acid fermentation also gives the sour taste to fermented vegetables such as traditionally cultured sauerkraut. The sugars in the cabbage are converted into lactic acid and serve as a preservative.

Yogurt fermentation  Yogurt is made by fermenting milk with friendly bacteria, mainly Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus.  Yogurt fermentation was invented probably by accident by Balkan tribes thousands of years ago. Yogurt remained mainly a food of eastern Europe until the 1900s, when the biologist Mechnikov created the theory that lactobacillus bacteria in yogurt are responsible for the unusually long lifespan of the Bulgar people.  The milk sugar or lactose is fermented by these bacteria to lactic acid which causes the characteristic curd to form. The acid also restricts the growth of food poisoning bacteria. During the yogurt fermentation some flavors are produced, which give yogurt its characteristic flavor.

Yogurt

Kefir

Kefir means to froth and Yogurt in Turkish means dense or thick.

Kefir fermentation Kefir is a fermented milk drink Kefir fermentation is similar to yogurt fermentation. Yogurt is only fermented by bacteria but kefir fermentation involves the help of bacteria as well as yeasts. These yeast produce some alcohol and carbon dioxide, which gives kefir its typical fizzy aspect. Kefir is inoculated with special kefir grains. These grains are mixtures of bacteria and yeasts in a matrix of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. Kefir fermentation is done at room temperature, which makes the process easier. On the other hand, not everyone likes the taste of kefir.

Considering the digestion, Kefir is easily digested than Yogurt. As the Kefir curd size is smaller to that of Yogurt, it becomes easier to get digested. Another difference that can be noticed is that Kefirs yeast and bacteria combination has more nutritional value than Yogurt. Kefir also helps to keep the colon clean and healthy.

What types of microorganisms cause fermentation to occur?

 The primary purpose of fermentation is to furnish energy for metabolism and growth to microorganisms including bacteria, yeast, and mold.  A. Bacteria are typically one-celled organisms that multiply by simple division and can be seen only with a microscope; necessary for some types of fermentation.

 B. Yeasts are any of various unicellular (single-celled) fungi in which little or no mycelium develops and that ordinarily reproduce by budding; they live on sugary solutions. The dry granules of yeast that are bought at the store become active when they become moist.  C. Molds are a fungus that grows in a tangled mass of filaments containing cells. Fungi are not plants and therefore do not photosynthesize. They are eukaryotic (have a cell membrane and membrane bound organelles) heterotrophs (obtain energy by consuming other organisms). Fungi break down their food outside of their bodies and then consume it.

What food and non-food products are created by fermentation?

 A. Foods that undergo fermentation include yogurt, cheese, wine, cider, bread, sauerkraut, flavorings, candy, fruit juice, silage, and beer. Pickling involves fermentation. Foods that are frequently pickled include beans, onions, cauliflower, cucumbers, tomatoes, and cabbage.

Yeast
Yeast is a unicellular fungi. Yeast flourish in habitats where sugar is present e.g. flowers, fruit and bark of trees. A few are pathogenic for animals and humans. The most important commercially are bakers or brewers yeast which are spp. of Saccharomyces.

Bread and Yeast

 Leavened bread is made from a combinations of flour, sugar, milk or water, yeast, and sometimes butter or oil.  Yeast (Sacchromyces) ferments the sugar to ethanol and CO2.  The CO2 causes the bread to rise producing the characteristic texture.  The ethanol evaporates during baking.

 1. Bread is made through alcoholic fermentation. Yeasts eat the sugar from the granulated sugar and the maltose (disaccharide or double sugar; made up of two glucose molecules) from the flour. ATP is created helping the yeast to multiply. One yeast cell can consume its weight in glucose in one hour. The yeast initially uses oxygen to obtain energy and reproduce. As the oxygen is used up they undergo alcoholic fermentation and produce alcohol and carbon dioxide as by-products.  The alcohol burns off during baking, but leaves a good flavor in the bread. When flour is mixed with water and then kneaded, an elastic dough is created because of gluten. Gluten is a protein found in wheat. This elastic dough holds in the carbon dioxide forming small air pockets or bubbles causing the bread to rise.

Wines and Alcoholic Beverages

 The production of wines and alcoholic beverages from yeast is an ancient process.  Most fruits naturally have yeast cells on its surface and will undergo alcohol fermentation if the juice is extracted.  This natural fermentation process has developed into a industrial process.  Alcoholic beverages from yeast: Wine from fruit juice Beer and ale from malted grains Distilled beverages by distillation of fermented products e.g. rum

 Wine Produced from the fermentation of fruit juice, usually from grapes The grapes are crushed to form a must For white wines, white grapes are usually used, and the skins are removed from the must (pressing) before fermentation For red wines, red or black grapes are used, and the skin is allowed to remain during fermentation For ros wines, red grapes are used and the juice is allowed to remain in contact with the skins just long enough for a rose or pink color to develop

Wine Production
 Grapes are crushed and the juice extracted (Must).  Depending on the grapes used and its treatment, white or red wine is produced.  White wine: white grapes with skin removed.  Red wine: pomace (skin, seed and pieces of stem) is left during fermentation.  Yeast used are 2 types:
Wild yeast present on grapes Cultivated yeast (S. ellipsoideus)

Wine Making
 Before fermentation the wild yeast is killed by SO2 (100 ppm).  S. ellipsoideus is added as a starter culture.  Large amounts of CO2 produced during fermentation escapes through a one-way valve.  With red wine after 3-5 days of fermentation the pomace is separated from the wine and allowed to ferment for another week or two.

Wine Making
 During racking the wine is separated from the yeast cells etc. and stored at a high temperature for aging, flavour development and clarification.  The final clarification is aided by the addition of fining agents such as casein, tannins and bentonite clay or the wine is filtered.  The wine is bottled and left for aging.  Red wine: age for several years.  White wine: sold without much aging.  Wine is 6-14% alcohol.

Fermented Foods
 Beer
Produced by the fermentation of malted grain
Malted grain: Grain that has been allowed to germinate, then dried in a kiln & perhaps roasted Germinating the grain causes the production of a number of enzymes, most notably - and amylase Malted grains that may be used are barley, rye, or wheat Unmalted grains, such as rice or corn, may also be used

Brewing
Brewing is the manufacture of alcohol beverage from malted grains e.g. beer, ale and stout. Beer making can be divided 3 basic stages: Wort making Fermentation Bottling and aging

Wort Making
 Malt is prepared from geminating barley seeds.  Natural enzymes in the seed convert starch to sugar (yeast cannot digest starch).  Mixed in with the malt are other grains e.g. corn, rice and wheat.  The mixture is cooked and steeped. The heat and enzyme convert starch to sugar.  After cooking the wort is filtered and hops (female flower of the hop plant) is added.

Hops

Wort Making/Fermentation
 The hops add flavour and has antimicrobial properties.  Wort and hop is boiled for several hours to extract flavour from the hops and the coagulated proteins are removed.  Fermentation  There are 2 types of brewing yeast
 Top (S. carlsbergenis)  Bottom (S. cerevisiae)

Fermentation/Bottling
Yeast is added to the wort and fermented (6-23 C) for 5-14 days.  After this the beer is removed to large tanks and stored at a lower temperature for several days to weeks. Beer is taken from the storage tank and bottled.

Beer Making

What are some advantages and disadvantages of fermentation in food processing?

 A. Advantages include:  1. Fermentation can increase the shelf life of foods by inhibiting the enzymatic deterioration of plant tissues.  2. Fermentation improves the dough handling characteristics of bread by softening the gluten because the gluten proteins are hydrated. This allows the dough to be handled easier, especially by machines.  3. It can enhance the texture, flavor and odor of foods. For example, the compound diacetyl is produced by various lactic acid bacteria during dairy fermentations (i.e. cottage cheese, sour cream, buttermilk). This compound is responsible for the buttery aroma and taste typically associated with these products.

 4. Fermentation helps food to be stored safely.  5. Fermentation allows humans to enjoy their favorite foods in a different way by creating a variety of flavors, textures, color, and appearance of some foods.  6. Fermentation is also used to create new energy sources such as ethanol.  7. The vitamin content of some foods can be increased.  8. Digestibility can be improved.  9. The toxicity of some foods (particularly oriental) may be decreased.  10. Some scientists believe that particular types of fermented milk products (i.e. acidophilus milk, yogurt) have a therapeutic value and can be beneficial in cases of alimentary disorders (i.e. constipation, diarrhea, etc.) and may even preclude the development and outgrowth of harmful bacteria.

 B. Fermentation can also cause problems for growers and food processors. In some cases natural fermentation occurs which makes the original product unfit for consumption. Fermentation produces an acid and a gas.  The by-products or end products of fermentation include carbon dioxide, water, alcohol, lactic acid, and other acids. Sometimes these fermentation products create conditions unfavorable to microorganisms to a point where fermentation ceases. For example, fermentation comes to a halt when the percent of alcohol in a solution reaches about 12 percent.

What factors can affect the fermentation process?

 A. Fermentation time determines how long the yeast has to act on the sugars. As time passes the rate of fermentation decreases, but never stops under favorable conditions.  B. Yeast cells can tolerate a pH of 4.08.5 with the optimum pH between 4.0 and 6.0. Before fermentation begins in bread dough, the pH is around 5.5 5.8. As fermentation begins the pH drops to around 5.0. This is caused by the production of organic acids including carbonic acid (carbon dioxide dissolved in water; H2 CO3 ). Carbonic acid is more acidic than the dough. Flour and milk act as buffers to help maintain the pH level. Calcium carbonate is a common additive that bakeries use to buffer the pH.

 C. The presence of air affects fermentation and is probably the most critical factor in producing some food products. Since fermentation is anaerobic, the presence of air will allow for yeast/mold growth and result in softening, off flavors and darkening of the product.  D. Optimum fermentation occurs at 75-85F for yeast. The higher the temperature, the faster fermentation will occur, but the flavor can be inferior and the product will darken readily. Scientists estimate that for every one degree increase in temperature that fermentation of yeast will increase three to five percent.

 E. The presence of salts affects the fermentation process. The salt withdraws water and nutrients from vegetative tissue in order to enable lactic microorganisms to grow. It also inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms and delays enzymatic spoilage.  The proper concentration of salt (2.5% for sauerkraut) favors lactics, while low salt results in softening of the tissue because not enough water is pulled form the tissues. High salt (over 3.5% for sauerkraut) inhibits all lactics, including the desirable ones, slows anaerobiosis, and results in undesirable yeast growth. Also, high salt concentration favors lactic microorganisms that produce only lactic acid, resulting in a rather bland product.

 F. The amount of water present affects fermentation. Lack of water slows the process.  G. When the concentration of sugar is greater than five percent, fermentation will slow. Maltose (disaccharide) has less of an effect than does glucose, fructose, or sucrose (monosaccharides). Flour contains maltose. High concentrations of sugar cause the concentration gradient (related to osmosis) to be too high for the yeast. Additionally, maltose is not broken down outside of the cell like glucose, thus the concentration gradient is not as severe.  H. Contaminating organisms can also impede the fermentation process.