A. Eukaryotes - include plants, animals, fungi, protozoa, and algae.

B. Prokaryotes include bacteria and Archaea.

POINT OF COMPARISON Nuclear envelope

EUKARYOTES

PROKARYOTES

DNA associated structure Organelles Cell wall

(Present) Their genetic material (Absent) Their genetic is enclosed within a membrane material is enclosed within [nucleus] a membrane [nucleoid region] Their DNA is associated with Their DNA is not histones (simple proteins bound associated with histones to DNA, involved in the coiling of chromosomes) They possess membrane bound They lack membraneorganelles bound organelles Their cell walls are complex Their cell walls are simpler (having many parts) by

Means of They usually divide by mitosis & They usually divide reproduction meiosis binary fission.

1. Viruses - are acellular organisms - structures/parts: a.Viral capsid outer surface which is composed of repeating sub-units called CAPSOMERES. b. Viruses possess only one type of nucleic acid, either RNA or DNA, but never both. - other characteristics: a. Viruses do not possess the necessary cellular parts that can allow them to replicate independent of the host cell. b. They also lack the genes and enzymes that are necessary for energy production.

- classification: (they are classified based on *BACTERIOPHAGES are the ff:) special type of virus that a. type of nucleic acid they possess (DNA infects primarily viruses/RNA viruses) bacteria. They play a role in the acquisition of b. Shape of the capsid (Icosahedral/ virulence factors of Helical/ Polyhedral/ Complex) certain bacteria ( e.g c. Number of capsomeres diphtheria toxin of d. Size of capsid Corynebacterium diphtheria), as well as in e. Presence or absence of an envelope the transfer of genetic f. type of host they infect (human/ material from one plant/animal viruses) bacterium to another g. type of disease they produce (transduction) h. target cell (e.g. T helper cells for HIV) i. Immunologic or antigenic properties

2. Bacteria - are prokaryotic cells. - parts/characteristics: a. Their outer surface (called cell wall) is composed mainly of peptidoglycan. b. Bacteria possess both DNA & RNA. c. They do not have a true nucleus, lack mitochondria & have smaller ribosomes.

- classification: (Bacteria are classified broadly based on their physical characteristics) a. Gram negative bacteria with cell walls ( e.g Eschirichia coli) b. Gram positive w/ cell walls ( e.g. Staphylococcus aureus) c. Those that do not have a cell wall (e.g. Mycoplasma)

3. Fungi - are eukaryotic cells with an outer surface that is composed mainly of chitin. -other features/characteristics: a. Similar to bacteria, fungi possess both DNA and RNA. b. Unlike bacteria, they possess a true nucleus that is enclosed by a nuclear membrane, mitochondria that function for ATP/energy production. c. Fungal ribosomes are also larger than bacterial ribosomes ( 80 Svedberg units )

4. Protozoa - are the representatives for parasites. - are also eukaryotic cells. - They are unicellular organisms that divide by binary fission. - Their outer surface is a flexible membrane called a pellicle, which is different from the typical cell seen in bacteria & fungi. - Protozoa also possess both DNA & RNA, as well as other features seen in typical; eukaryotic cells.

5. Algae - are eukaryotic organisms. - Their outer surface consists primarily of cellulose. - Algae are described as plantlike organisms. - Algae seldom produce disease in humans. - e.g. DIATOMS are unicellular algae that inhabit both fresh- and seawater -e.g. DINOFLAGELLATES, like diatoms are also unicellular algae which are important members of the phytoplankton group. They are also responsible for what is known as red tide.

POINT OF COMPARISON ALGAE Eukaryotic Yes Photosynthetic Yes Cells contain chlorophyll Yes Use CO2 as energy source Yes Yes Store energy in the form of starch No Composed of roots, stems & leaves Cell walls contain Most (except diatoms cellulose & dinoflagellates) Method of reproduction Both asexual and sexual

PLANTS Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Most Yes Sexual

Bacteria have 3 basic shapes: 1. coccus (pl. cocci) are spherical, oval, or round-shaped bacteria (eg. Staphylococcus, Neisseria). - they may be seen singly, in pairs (diplococci), in chains (streptococci), in clusters (staphylococci), in groups of four (tetrad), or in groups of eight (octad).

Streptococcus Bacteria

Coccus

Diplococci Streptococci Staphylococci

Tetrad

Octad

2. bacillus (pl. bacilli) are rod-shaped organisms (e.g., E. coli, Salmonella) - some maybe very short, resembling elongated cocci called coccobacilli (eg. Haemophilus influenzae)

E. coli

Salmonella

H. influenzae

3. spirilla curved & spiral shaped organisms may have different variations: Comma-shaped Vibrio cholerae, the choleraproducing bacterium Spiral in shape Treponema pallidum, the causative agent of syphilis Club-shaped Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the agent causing diphtheria

C. diphtheriae

1. ENVELOPE STRUCTURES a. Glycocalyx the outermost covering (some bacteria). - a gelatinous substance located external to the cell wall. - composed of polysaccharide. - referred to as the capsule (strongly attached to the cell wall), & slime layer (loosely attached). - functions: (1) indicative of the virulence of an organism (2) it is antigenic (3) it protects the organism from dehydration

b. Outer membrane - the outer membrane of Gram negative bacteria is composed of LPS (lipopolysaccharide). - functions: (1) There is lipid portion in the LPS - Lipid A responsible for endotoxin production. (2) The polysaccharide component of the outer membrane called O polysaccharide is antigenic.

c. Cell Wall referred to as murein sacculus - principal component is peptidoglycan - Gram positive bacteria (multilayered) & Gram-negative bacteria (monolayered). - functions: (1) Provides support & gives shape (2) It provides protection from osmotic damage. (3) It is the site of action of beta-lactam antibiotics. (4) The teichoic acid (Gram-positive bacteria like Staphylococcus) functions for attachment & is also antigenic. (5) The mycolic acid in the cell wall of Mycobacterium is responsible for its acid fastness.

d. Periplasmic space a fluid filled space between the outer membrane & the plasma membrane - functions: (1) Contains enzymes for breakdown of large molecules. (2) Transports proteins for the regulation of the osmolality (water movement) of the cell.

e. Cytoplasmic membrane AKA the plasma membrane or cell membrane - sometimes referred to as the cell sack. - located beneath the cell wall - functions: As a carrier for enzymes & is involved in selective permeability & active transport of molecules in & out of the bacterial cell.

2. PROJECTING STRUCTURES a. Pilus (pl., pili) or fimbria (pl., fimbriae) - is a thread like structure that projects from the capsule. - are commonly seen in Gram negative organisms. - functions: (1) For adherence to cell surface (common pilus). (2) For attachment during conjugation (sex pilus).

b. Axial filaments & Flagella - are whip-like structures projecting from the capsule and are organs for motility. - are classified into 5 types, namely: (1) Monotrichous single polar flagellum (Vibrio cholerae) (2) Lophotrichous a tuft of flagella at one end of the bacterium (Bartonella baciliformis) (3) Amphitrichous flagella at both ends of the bacterium (Spirillum serpens) (4) Peritrichous flagella all around the bacillus (Escherichia coli) (5) Atrichous without flagellum

3. INTERNAL STRUCTURES a. Nucleoid no nucleoplasm & nuclear membrane - contains the genetic material (DNA), w/c is a single, circular, double stranded DNA. b. Mesosome functions for cell division & is involved in the secretion of substances by the bacteria c. Ribosomes the sites for protein synthesis - the target or site of action of some antibiotics

d. Granules or Inclusion bodies - found in certain bacteria & serve for storage of food & energy (eg., metachromatic granules of Corynebacterium diphtheriae). e. Endospores - is composed of dipicolinic acid - resistant to heat, drying, chemical agents & radiation produced when the environmental conditions are detrimental to the bacteria (sporulation). - [when the endospores are damaged by chemical or physical attacks it returns to its vegetative state thru a process known as germination].

I. NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS 1. CARBON - backbone/skeleton of all organic molecules * groups of microorganisms based on their carbon sources: (a) Autotrophs/lithotrophs utilize inorganic compounds (CO2), inorganic salts & water - source of energy is derived from light photolithotrophs; the source is from oxidation of inorganic substances chemolithotrophs b) Heterotrophs /organotrophs utilize organic substances like sugars or glucose - source of energy is derived from light photoorganotrophs; from oxidation they are called chemoorganotrophs.

2. NITROGEN, SULFUR & PHOSPHORUS are necessary for the synthesis of cellular materials like proteins & nucleic acids * N & S synthesis of proteins. * N & P synthesis of nucleic acids and ATP *NOTE: Approximately 14% of the dry weight of a bacterial cell is Nitrogen & about 4% is sulfur & phosphorus

3. INORGANIC IONS includes magnesium, potassium, calcium, iron & trace elements such as manganese, zinc, copper & cobalt. (MgKCaFe; MnZnCuCo) * Mg stabilizes ribosomes, cell membranes & nucleic acids ; cofactor for many enzymes * K normal functioning & integrity of ribosomes ; also for certain enzymatic activities * Ca constituent of the cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria; contributes to the resistance of bacterial endospores * Fe a part of cytochrome & as a co-factor in enzymatic activities.

4. GROWTH FACTORS include vitamin B complex, amino acids, purines & pyrimidines.

II. PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

1.

MOISTURE OR WATER where bacteria acquire nutrients from (bacterial cell is composed mainly of water)

2. OXYGEN * Classification of Microorganisms based on their oxygen requirement: (a) Aerobes utilize molecular oxygen for energy those microbes that strictly require oxygen for growth (strict aerobes). (b) Anaerobes do not utilize oxygen for energy those that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen (obligate or strict anaerobes lack enzymes like superoxide dismutase & catalase.
y

Aerotolerant anaerobes can resist exposure to oxygen & therefore are not killed by its presence. Microaerophilic anaerobes are able to grow at low oxygen tension but its rate of growth is diminished.

***FACULTATIVE ORGANISMS are those that can grow under both aerobic & anaerobic conditions. Most medically important bacteria belong to this group.

3. TEMPERATURE based on temperature requirements, microbes are grouped into: (a) Thermophiles (heat-loving) grow best at an optimum temperature range of 50 600C. (b) Mesophiles require an optimum temperature of 20 400C (c) Psychrophiles require an optimum temperature of 10 200C ** Most medically important bacteria are mesophiles.

4. pH degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution microorganisms are classified as: (a) alkalophiles pH is 8.4 9.0 (b) neutrophiles pH is 7.5 8.0 (c) acidophiles pH is 6.5 7.0 The most medically important bacteria grow best at a pH of 6.7 to 7.5, hence, they are considered neutrophiles

5. OSMOTIC CONDITIONS (concentration gradient of salt/solute against solvent/water) - some microorganisms require high salt concentrations for growth, hence, they are referred to as halophiles. - some require high osmotic pressure & are referred as osmophiles.

C Population (n) B

LEGEND: A Lag Phase B Log Phase C Stationary Phase D Death Phase

Time