world roughly divided into inputs and outputs. The role of a scientist or engineer is to study the behavior or a systems.
T h e co m p l ex m e ch a n i l ch e m i l m a ch i e ca / ca n has a num ber of va ri b l s su ch a s fa n sp e e d , p re ssu re , te m p e ra tu re e tc th a t a re a e ca l e d sta te v a ria b le s . I i cru ci l th a t a l va ri b l s sta y w i i l t s a l a e th n re a so n a b l b o u n d s. e T h e o b j ct o f co n tro l th e o ry i to m a ke syste m s p e rfo rm sp e ci c ta sks e s fi b y u si g su i b l co n tro l a cti n s. Fo r exa m p l , w h e n th e p i o t p u sh e s n ta e o e l th e th ro ttl , th e a cti n s i tra n sl te d i to a co n tro l si n a l th a t m a ke s e o s a n g th e e n g i e i cre a se i p o w e r o u tp u t b y a sp e ci e d m o u n t. n n ts fi
The basic control arrangement involves measuring the outputs of a given system and comparing them with derivable responses to form the error signal. The errors are then fed into the controller to produce the control signal, which is finally applied to the system through actuator. an
The crucial feature is the closed loop that feeds the output back to the system. The sensory information telling you whether outputs are good or not. We call this job feedback.
* First order equations : W i x 0 is the starting value, the solution th is then Fo r k < 0 d e ca ys exp o n e n ti l y , th e syste m i ca l e d al s l sta b le Fo r k > 0 g ro w s exp o n e n ti l y , th e syste m i ca l e d al s l u n sta b le T h e l rg e r |k| i , th e fa ste r th e tra n si n t. a s e * Second order equations : 0> 0 the natural frequency the damping ratio
E q u a ti n s 2 . 1 b e co m e s : o
2 x0 e st ( s 2 + 20 s + 0 ) = 0
dx = sx0 e st dt
d 2x = s 2 x0 e st dt 2
W e h a ve th e a u x ilia ry e q u a tio n :
2 ( s 2 + 20 s + 0 ) = 0
1 .N o dam pi g: 2 n
2 ( s + 0 ) = 0 s = i0 x(t ) = e0t ( A sin 0t + B cos 0t ) = ( A sin 0t + B cos 0t ) x0 = ( A sin 0 0 + B cos 0 0) B = x0 & x(t ) = 0 ( A cos 0t B sin 0t ) & x0 & & x0 = 0 ( A cos 0 0 B sin 0 0) x 0 = 0 A A = 0 T h e so l ti n i th i ca se u o n s & x0 i s x(t ) = ( x0 cos 0t + sin 0t ) 0
2.
U n d e rd a m p ed:
3 . C ri ca l ti dam pi g: n
4 . O ve rd a m p e d : th i ca se g i s tw o re a l p o l s a n d h e n ce a so l ti n s ve e u o th a t i a su m o f re a l exp o n e n ti l . s as
1< < 0
=0
> 1 c > 1
1< < 0
=0
T h e h o m o g e n e o u s e q u a ti n d e scri e s th e u n fo rce d sy ste m . When o b w e h a ve n o n -zero right hand side , the system is a co n tro lle d sy ste m . Le t l o k a t a l n e a r syste m w h i w i l m e a n a syste m w i i p u t u and o i ch l th n o u tp u t y :
sh i : ft Pro o f:
L(e at ( x (t )) = x (t )e at e st dt = x (t )e (s + a )t dt = X ( s + a )
0 0
Pro o f:
d de st dx ( xe st )dt = x dt + e st dt dt dt dt 0 0 0
dx dx st de st st L( ) = e dt = xe |0 x dt = x0 + xe st dt dt dt dt 0 0 0 dx = sX ( s ) x0 L( ) = sX ( s ) x0 dt
+ Positive Time Shift : W e h a ve : X ( s ) = L(h(t ) x(t )) Fo r a n y p o si ve ti e the transform of the function x shifted by ti m , ti e is m st
L(h(t ) x(t )) = e
X (s )
L(h(t ) x (t )) = x (t )e st dt
Le t ch a n g e th e va ri b l u a e = t -
L(h(t ) x (t )) = x (u )e s (u + ) du = e s X ( s )
0
Example 2.2:
P r o p o s i t i o n 2 . 1 : If the strictly proper rational function n ( s )/ d ( s ) of equation 2 . 29 has more than one distinct roots , then it can be written as a sum of rational functions of denominator degree less than deg d ( s ) , as follows :
a s+ p
where :
a=
n( p ) = lim( s p )G ( p ) q( p) s p
2 . To every multiple real root p of multiplicity k ,( k2) of the denominator d ( s ), so that d ( s )=( s - p ) k q ( s ), with q ( p ) 0 , corresponds exactly k terms in the partial fractions expansion ( PFE )
ck c1 c2 + + ... + 2 ( s p) ( s p) ( s p)k
where :
n( s ) h( s ) = q(s)
Example 2.3:
& y0 = 1, y0 = 1
4 s2 & L( y ) = sY ( s ) y 0 = sY (s ) 1 L(4t ) =
4 s Y ( s ) + 1 3( sY ( s ) 1) + 2Y ( s ) = 2 s 4 4 + s3 4 s 2 2 Y ( s )( s 3s + 2) = 2 + s 4 = s s2 s 3 4s 2 + 4 Y (s) = 2 s ( s 2)( s 1)
2
s 3 4s 2 + 4 Y (s ) = 2 s ( s 2)( s 1)
n( p ) a= = lim( s p )Y ( p ) q( p) s p
3 . To every simple pair of complex conjugate roots i of the denominator d ( s ), so that With q ( i ) 0, correspond exactly two terms of the form
4 . To every multiple pair of complex poles i of multiplicity k ,( k2), correspond exactly k terms of form
Example2.4:
Taking the Laplace transform , we have :
R0 =
iK / 0 K K |s =i0 = = 2 ( s + i0 )( s 2 + 2 ) 2i 0 ( 0 2 + 2 ) ( 0 2 )
K / 0 A1 = 2(R0 ) = 0, B1 = 2i( R0 ) = 2 ( 0 2 ) A2 = 0, B2 == K 2 (0 2 )
Y (s) =
K K 2 2 2 2 ( s 2 + 0 )( 2 0 ) ( s + 2 )( 2 0 )
0 K = 2 2 2 2 2 ( 0 ) 0 ( s + 0 ) ( s + 2 )
Taking the inversion of Laplace transform Y ( s ), we have :
With 0
Summary
The Laplace transform converts linear differential
equations into algebraic equations. The solution of these linear equations therefore leads to rational function expressions for the variables involved.
Simple real roots of the denominator correspond to
exponential time functions. A simple complex pair corresponds to a modulated trigonometric function, e at cos(t+)
Multiple roots imply the multiplication of the time