Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation

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Ahmad Hassan Ahmad Hassan Mansour Mansour
8090334 8090334
2010/2011 1
Ahmad Mansour
(a_mansour01@yahoo.com)
ut Line ut Line
Introduction Introduction
Ionizing Radiation Ionizing Radiation
Unit of radiation measurement Unit of radiation measurement
Background Radiation Sources Background Radiation Sources
Radiobiology Radiobiology
DNA DNA
Direct vs. Indirect effect Direct vs. Indirect effect
Iree radical Iree radical
Cell cycle Cell cycle
Radiosensitive cell and Radioresistant cell Radiosensitive cell and Radioresistant cell
Radiation effect modifiers Radiation effect modifiers
Dose Dose- -Response curves Response curves
Cellular effects Cellular effects
Radiation and cancer Radiation and cancer
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Introduction Introduction
The The ceIIs ceIIs in tissues are the in tissues are the primary eIement primary eIement for for
radiation exposure Ieading to physioIogicaI harm radiation exposure Ieading to physioIogicaI harm
the initiaI events after the physicaI deposition of the initiaI events after the physicaI deposition of
energy is the generation of energy is the generation of free radicaIs free radicaIs. .
Radiation affects peopIe by depositing energy in Radiation affects peopIe by depositing energy in
body tissue body tissue
Both Iarge and smaII doses of radiation can cause Both Iarge and smaII doses of radiation can cause
ceIIuIar damage. ceIIuIar damage.
By damaging the genetic materiaI (DNA) contained in By damaging the genetic materiaI (DNA) contained in
the body's ceIIs, radiation can cause the body's ceIIs, radiation can cause cancer cancer..
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Ionizing Radiation Ionizing Radiation
onizing radiation is energy that is carried by any of severaI onizing radiation is energy that is carried by any of severaI
types of particIes and rays (eIectromagnetic radiation) types of particIes and rays (eIectromagnetic radiation)
This energy can knock eIectrons out of moIecuIes with which This energy can knock eIectrons out of moIecuIes with which
they interact, thus creating ions. they interact, thus creating ions.
The three main types of ionizing radiation are aIpha particIes, The three main types of ionizing radiation are aIpha particIes,
beta particIes, and gamma rays. beta particIes, and gamma rays.
Beta particIes: Beta particIes: a negatron attaches itseIf to an atom and a negatron attaches itseIf to an atom and
becomes an ordinary eIectron, whiIe a positron coIIides with an becomes an ordinary eIectron, whiIe a positron coIIides with an
ambient eIectron and the two particIes annihiIate each other, ambient eIectron and the two particIes annihiIate each other,
producing two gamma rays. producing two gamma rays.
AdditionaI forms of ionizing radiation beyond the three types AdditionaI forms of ionizing radiation beyond the three types
incIude neutrons, protons, neutrinos, muons, pions, heavy incIude neutrons, protons, neutrinos, muons, pions, heavy
charged particIes, X charged particIes, X- -rays and others. rays and others.
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TraditionaI Units S Units
Roentgen (R) CouIombs per kiIogram
rad Gray
rem Sievert
Units of Radiation Measurement
S = nternationaI System of Units; used worIdwide
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Roentgen
The Roentgen (R) is the traditionaI unit of
measuring radiation exposure. This measures
the amount of (-ray and X-ray) onIy that
interaction with one gram of air for energy
<3Mev. Which equaIs to 2.58x10
-4
c\kg in 1g of
air.
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The rad (radiation absorbed dose) is the traditionaI
unit used to measure the energy absorbed by the
mass. The S unit is the Gray (Gy). 1 Gray = 100
rads; 1 cGy (centiGray) = .01 Gray = 1 rad.
rad/Gray
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The rem (roentgen equivaIent man) is the traditionaI
unit used for comparing the effects of different types
of ionizing radiation (eIectromagnetic and particuIate).
The dose (in rads) is muItipIied by a quaIity
(weighting) factor. The quaIity factor for x-rays is 1.
Therefore the dose in rems (dose equivaIent) is the
same as the dose in rads. For aIpha particIes the
quaIity factor is 20. Therefore the dose in rems (dose
equivaIent) wouId be 20 times the dose in rads for
aIpha particIes. The higher the LET, the higher the
quaIifying factor.
The S unit is the Sievert (Sv). 1 Sievert = 100 rems;
1cSv (.01 Sievert) = 1 rem.
rem/Sievert
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1 rad = 1 rem ( X-ray)
1 Gray = 1 Sievert = 100 rads = 100 rems
c (centi) = .01 m (miIIi) = .001 (micro) = .000001
1000 mrem = 1 rem = 1 cSv
100 mrem = 1 mSv = 1000 Sv
1 Sv = 100 cSv = 1,000 mSv = 1,000,000 Sv
For x-rays, not particuIate radiation
Conversions
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Each year, peopIe are exposed to various types of
ionizing radiation (Iisted beIow) and receive an average
dose of 3.6 mSv (360 mrem ) per year. The actuaI dose
depends on the degree of exposure to the ionizing
radiation sources.
Radon 2 mSv(55%)
Cosmic 0.27 mSv (8%)
Rocks/soiI 0.28 mSv (8%)
Food/water 0.4 mSv (11%)
MedicaI x-rays 0.39 mSv (11%)
NucIear medicine 0.14 mSv (4%)
Consumer products 0.1 mSv (3%)
Other sources <0.01 mSv (<1%)
AnnuaI Radiation Exposure
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W WRadiobioIogy, a branch of science concerned with the RadiobioIogy, a branch of science concerned with the
action of ionizing radiation on bioIogicaI tissues and action of ionizing radiation on bioIogicaI tissues and
Iiving organisms Iiving organisms
W WCeIIs contain CeIIs contain inorganic compounds inorganic compounds ( (water and water and
mineraIs) as weII as mineraIs) as weII as organic compounds organic compounds ( (proteins, proteins,
carbohydrates, nucIeic acids and Iipids). carbohydrates, nucIeic acids and Iipids).
W WHuman ceIIs are either Human ceIIs are either somatic somatic ceIIs or ceIIs or germ germ ceIIs. ceIIs.
W Wdivision of somatic ceIIs is caIIed division of somatic ceIIs is caIIed mitosis mitosis
W Wdivision of germ ceIIs is caIIed division of germ ceIIs is caIIed meiosis meiosis, , two ceIIs are two ceIIs are
produced, each carrying a chromosome compIement produced, each carrying a chromosome compIement
identicaI to that of the originaI ceII. identicaI to that of the originaI ceII.
RadiobioIogy
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Somatic CeIIs vs. Germ CeIIs
There are two generaI types of ceIIs in the body; these
are somatic and genetic. Somatic ceIIs are aII the ceIIs
except for the germ (reproductive) ceIIs. f somatic
ceIIs are irradiated, onIy the person exposed wiII be
affected. Germ ceIIs are the sperm and ova. f the germ
ceIIs are irradiated, the offspring of the individuaI may
be affected.
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DNA
Radiation effects at the ceIIuIar IeveI
resuIt from changes in a criticaI or
"target" moIecuIe. This target moIecuIe
is DNA (deoxyribonucIeic acid), which
reguIates ceIIuIar activity and contains
genetic information needed for ceII
repIication. The DNA moIecuIe is caIIed
a chromosome. Permanent changes in
this moIecuIe wiII aIter ceII function and
may resuIt in ceII death.
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Direct vs. ndirect Effect
DNA
x-ray or particuIate
radiation
Direct effect
=
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Direct vs. ndirect Effect
H
2
O
ions and
free radicaIs
x-ray or particuIate
radiation
DNA
=
ndirect
effect
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A free radicaI is an atom or moIecuIe that has
an unpaired eIectron in the vaIence sheII,
making it highIy reactive. These free radicaIs
aggressiveIy join with the DNA moIecuIe to
produce damage. n the presence of oxygen,
the hydroperoxyI free radicaI is formed; this is
one of the most damaging free radicaIs that
can be produced. Free radicaIs are the
primary mediator of the indirect effects on
DNA.
Free RadicaI
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CeII CycIe
More damage resuIts when the ceII is irradiated during
the G1/earIy S portion of the ceII cycIe (before DNA
synthesis); the damaged DNA (chromosome) wiII be
dupIicated during DNA synthesis and wiII resuIt in a
break in both arms of the chromosome at the next
mitosis.
G
1
= gap phase 1 in which nucIear
components are repIicated
S = synthesis phase; DNA is
synthesized during the Iast 2/3 of
this phase
G
2
= gap phase 2, a preparatory
stage to ceII division
M = mitosis, during which ceIIs
divide
CeII most sensitive
to radiation
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1. High reproductive rate (many mitoses)
2. Undifferentiated (immature)
3. High metaboIic rate
Radiosensitive CeIIs
CeIIs that are more easiIy damaged by radiation are
radiosensitive. The characteristics of radiosensitive
ceIIs are:
Lymphocytes, germ ceIIs, basaI ceIIs of skin and
mucosa, and erythrobIasts are exampIes of
radiosensitive ceIIs.
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Radioresistant CeIIs
1. Low reproductive rate (few mitoses)
2. WeII differentiated (mature)
3. Low metaboIic rate
CeIIs that are not as susceptibIe to damage from
radiation are radioresistant. The characteristics of
radioresistant ceIIs are:
Nerve and muscIe ceIIs are exampIes of
radioresistant ceIIs.
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Radiation Effect Modifiers
The bioIogicaI response to radiation is dependent on
severaI different factors. These incIude:
W TotaI Dose: the higher the radiation dose, the
greater the potentiaI ceIIuIar damage.
W Dose Rate: A high dose given over a short
period of time (or aII at once) wiII produce more
damage than the same dose received over a
Ionger period of time.
W TotaI Area Covered: the more ceIIs that are
exposed to radiation, the greater the effects wiII
be.
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Radiation Effect Modifiers (continued)
W Type of tissue: As discussed earIier,
radiosensitive ceIIs are more IikeIy to be
damaged by radiation than are radioresistant
ceIIs.
W Age: Because the ceIIs are dividing more
frequentIy in a growing chiId, young peopIe are
affected more by radiation than are oIder peopIe.
W Linear Energy Transfer: This measures the rate
of the Ioss of energy as radiation moves
through tissue. ParticuIate radiation (aIpha
particIes, eIectrons, etc.) has a higher LET
because it has mass and interacts with
tissues much more readiIy than do x-rays.
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W Oxygen Effect: Radiation effects are more pronounced
in the presence of oxygen. Oxygen is required for the
formation of the hydroperoxyI free radicaI, which is
the most damaging free radicaI formed foIIowing
ionization.
Radiation Effect Modifiers (continued)
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threshoId
Iinear
non-Iinear
Dose-Response Curves
non-threshoId
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
Dose
Dose-Response curves represent the reIationship
between the dose of radiation a person receives and
the ceIIuIar response to that exposure. These
responses may be Iinear or non-Iinear and may, or may
not, have a threshoId dose; the responses (effects)
may be stochastic or deterministic. (See next two
sIides for definitions of these terms).
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Linear: the response is directIy reIated to the dose. As
the dose increases, the response increases
proportionateIy.
Non-Iinear: the response is not proportionate to the
dose. An increase in dose may resuIt in a Iarger or
smaIIer increase in the response depending on the
Iocation on the dose-response curve.
ThreshoId: this represents the dose at which effects
are produced; beIow this dose, there are no obvious
effects.
Non-threshoId: any dose, no matter how smaII, wiII
produce a response.
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Stochastic effect: occurs by chance, usuaIIy without
a threshoId IeveI of dose. The probabiIity of a
stochastic effect is increased with increasing doses,
but the severity of the response is not proportionaI
to the dose (e.g., two peopIe may get the same dose
of radiation, but the response wiII not be the same
in both peopIe). Genetic mutations and cancer are
the two main stochastic effects.
Deterministic effect: heaIth effects that increase in
severity with increasing dose above a threshoId
IeveI. UsuaIIy associated with a reIativeIy high dose
deIivered over a short period of time. Skin erythema
(reddening) and cataract formation from radiation
are two exampIes of deterministic effects.
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CeIIs undamaged: ionization aIters the structure of
the ceIIs but has no overaII negative effect.
SubIethaI injury: ceIIs are damaged by ionization
but the damage is repaired.
Mutation: ceII injury may be incorrectIy repaired,
and ceII function is aItered or the ceII may
reproduce at an uncontroIIed rate (cancer).
CeII death: the ceII damage is so extensive that the
ceII is no Ionger abIe to reproduce.
CeIIuIar Effects
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SubIethaI njury: CeIIuIar Repair
1. onization causes damage to DNA
(singIe-strand break of DNA).
2. CeIIuIar enzymes recognize the damage
and coordinate the removaI of the
damaged section.
3. AdditionaI ceII enzymes organize
repIacement of the damaged section with
new materiaI.
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When the DNA is damaged,
ceII function may be aItered
or reproductive capacity may
be acceIerated. Cancer is the
most harmfuI resuIt of
ceIIuIar mutation.
Mutation
NormaI
Mutation
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CeII Death
f there is extensive damage to the ceII foIIowing
irradiation or if ceII division (mitosis) is disrupted,
the ceII may die. This wiII depend on how
sensitive the ceIIs are to radiation. The Ioss of a
few ceIIs or smaII group of ceIIs is usuaIIy of no
consequence, since there are so many ceIIs
present in the body. n most cases, the dead ceIIs
wiII soon be repIaced through normaI reparative
processes.
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The time between the exposure and the
appearance of the effects of that exposure is
caIIed the Iatent period. n generaI, the higher
the dose, the shorter the Iatent period.
Latent Period
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