Chapter 8 Cellular Respiration

Energy flow and chemical recycling

8.1 Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration breaks down carbohydrates to make ATP

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O

glucose & oxygen yields carbon dioxide & water

Why? the process releases enough energy (277 kcal/mol glucose) to make up to 38 ATP molecules per glucose molecules! but it must be released in small steps

8.1 Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration breaks down carbohydrates to make ATP

How? glucose is a high-E molecule, CO2 and H2O are low-E molecules therefore, glucose breakdown is exergonic

8.1 Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration breaks down carbohydrates to make ATP

How? cont. + as e /H are removed from glucose (REDOX), an important intermediate carries the electrons

8.1 Cellular Respiration +  NAD and FAD

Who? + electrons are transferred to NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) + NAD is a coenzyme and an electron carrier + NAD holds onto most of the energy from glucose FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is sometimes used

8.1 Cellular Respiration +  NAD and FAD, cont.

Who? cont. + NAD receives two electrons and one proton to become NADH
Oxidation

HCOH +

+ Dehydrogenase NAD

C=O + NADH + H+

Reduction

Fig. 8.1 The NAD+ cycle

Fig. 8.2 Cellular respiration overview

8.1 Cellular Respiration  Phases of Cellular Respiration

glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm (outside mitochondria) glucose split into 2 pyruvates 2 ATP made NADH made oxygen is not required: anaerobic

8.1 Cellular Respiration  Phases of Cellular Respiration

preparatory reaction pyruvate enters mitochondria oxidized to a C2 acetyl group carried by CoA NADH formed CO2 removed occurs twice per glucose molecule

8.1 Cellular Respiration  Phases of Cellular Respiration

citric acid cycle occurs in mitochondrial matrix acetyl CoA oxidized NADH and FADH2 made 2 ATP made per glucose

8.1 Cellular Respiration  Phases of Cellular Respiration

electron transport chain occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane electrons from glucose are passed from one carrier to another (high to low E) eventually to O2 energy is released and used to make ATP through chemiosmosis requires oxygen: aerobic

Harnessing chemical energy

food  NADH  electron transport chain  oxygen

8.2 Glycolysis Glycolysis splits glucose

glycolysis: breakdown of glucose to two pyruvate molecules 1. glucose (C6) phosphorylated by ATP phosphorylation: adding a phosphate group to something to increase its PE
done by kinase family of enzymes  often involves ATP


Energy-Investment Steps

8.2 Glycolysis Glycolysis splits glucose, cont.  Energy-Investment Steps, cont.

2. molecule rearranged, followed by second phosphorylation by ATP
3. C6 molecule split into two G3P (PGAL) molecules (C3)

Fig. 8.4b Energy-investment steps

8.2 Glycolysis Glycolysis splits glucose, cont.  Energy-Harvesting Steps

4. G3P oxidized by NAD+ and then phosphorylated
5. removal of 2 phosphate groups produces 2 ATP and 2 3PG molecules
6. oxidation produces PEP
7. removal of 2 phosphate groups produces 2 ATP
8. pyruvate is the end product

Fig. 8.4b Energy-harvesting steps

Glycolysis

8.2 Glycolysis Glycolysis splits glucose, cont.  Energy-Harvesting Steps, cont.

substrate-level phosphorylation: use of an enzyme to transfer phosphate to ADP

Inputs and outputs of glycolysis

8.3 Inside Mitochondria Mitochondria synthesize ATP by chemiosmosis

the mitochondrion double membrane matrix: innermost space cristae: folds of inner membrane; location of ETC intermembrane space: area between inner and outer membranes

Fig. 8.5 Mitochondrion structure

8.3 Inside Mitochondria Mitochondria synthesize ATP by chemiosmosis, cont.  The Preparatory Reaction
pyruvate converted to an acetyl group (C2)
acetyl group attached to coenzyme A, forming acetyl CoA
one NADH formed for each pyruvate
one CO2 released for each pyruvate

The preparatory reaction

Pyruvate to acetyl CoA

8.3 Inside Mitochondria Mitochondria synthesize ATP by chemiosmosis, cont.  Citric Acid Cycle (aka Krebs cycle)
acetyl begins cycle by joining to a C4 molecule, forming a C6 molecule
a series of redox reactions produce NADH, ATP, FADH2, and CO2
the original C4 molecule is regenerated, and the process is ready to repeat

Fig. 8.6 Citric acid cycle

Citric acid cycle

citrate C6 CoA

1. The cycle begins when an acetyl group carried by CoA combines with a C4 molecule to form citrate.

AcetylCoA oxaloacetate C4

Citric acid cycle

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Citric acid cycle

NADH NAD+ citrate C6 CoA ketoglutarate C5 CO2 2. Twice over, substrates are oxidized, NAD+ is reduced to NADH, and CO2 is released.

1. The cycle begins when an acetyl group carried by CoA combines with a C4 molecule to form citrate.

AcetylCoA oxaloacetate C4

Citric acid cycle

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Citric acid cycle

NADH NAD+ citrate C6 CoA ketoglutarate C5 CO2 2. Twice over, substrates are oxidized, NAD+ is reduced to NADH, and CO2 is released. NAD+ AcetylCoA oxaloacetate C4 Citric acid cycle

1. The cycle begins when an acetyl group carried by CoA combines with a C4 molecule to form citrate.

NADH succinate C4 CO2 3. ADP becomes ATP as a high-energy phosphate is removed from a substrate.

ATP

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Citric acid cycle

NADH NAD+ citrate C6 CoA ketoglutarate C5 CO2 2. Twice over, substrates are oxidized, NAD+ is reduced to NADH, and CO2 is released. NAD+ AcetylCoA oxaloacetate C4 Citric acid cycle

1. The cycle begins when an acetyl group carried by CoA combines with a C4 molecule to form citrate.

NADH fumarate C4 succinate C4 FAD ATP CO2 3. ADP becomes ATP as a high-energy phosphate is removed from a substrate.

FADH2

4. Again a substrate is oxidized, but this time FAD is reduced to FADH2.

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Citric acid cycle

NADH NAD+ citrate C6 CoA ketoglutarate C5 CO2 2. Twice over, substrates are oxidized, NAD+ is reduced to NADH, and CO2 is released. NAD+ AcetylCoA oxaloacetate C4 NADH Citric acid cycle

1. The cycle begins when an acetyl group carried by CoA combines with a C4 molecule to form citrate.

NADH fumarate C4 succinate C4 FAD ATP CO2 3. ADP becomes ATP as a high-energy phosphate is removed from a substrate.

NAD+ 5. Once again a substrate is oxidized and NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

FADH2

4. Again a substrate is oxidized, but this time FAD is reduced to FADH2.

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Citric acid cycle

Inputs and outputs of Krebs cycle

Fig. 8.7a Electron transport chain

8.3 Inside Mitochondria  Electron Transport Chain

NADH and FADH2 release their electrons to a carrier molecule (often a cytochrome) in the inner membrane, causing it to be reduced
the carrier is then oxidized as it passes the electrons to the next carrier, and so on
each carrier is more electronegative, so the e- move with a PE gradient

Electron transport chain

Fig. 8.7b Electron transport chain

8.3 Inside Mitochondria  Electron Transport Chain, cont.

as e- are passed down transport chain, protein complexes of the ETC pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space
eventually the electrons are deposited into the matrix and join to O2 and H+ to make H2O

Fig. 8.8b Organization of cristae

Electron transport chain

8.3 Inside Mitochondria  Electron Transport Chain, cont.

therefore, energy in glucose is released and ultimately used to separate electrons and protons by the electron transport chain separation results in an electrochemical gradient (separation of charged chemicals) gradient is used for ATP production by chemiosmosis (oxidative phosphorylation)

ATP synthase

ATP synthase

Oxidative phosphorylation

Fig. 8.9 Glucose energy yield

8.4 Fermentation Fermentation is an anaerobic process

involves reduction of pyruvate by NADH in order to generate NAD+ used in an earlier reaction
alcoholic fermentation done by yeasts produces alcohol and CO2 used in bread, beer and wine production

8.4 Fermentation Fermentation is an anaerobic process, cont.

Yeast: pyruvate CO2 + ethanol NAD+

NADH Why Bother?

Because NAD is regenerated so that glycolysis can continue to make its whopping 2 ATPs, thats why!

8.4 Fermentation Fermentation is an anaerobic process, cont.

lactic acid fermentation done by animals, including humans, fungi, and some bacteria produces lactic acid (toxic) used in cheese, yogurt, and sauerkraut responsible for burning sensation in muscles after exercise (cost of glycolysis in anaerobic conditions)

Pyruvate fate

Fig. 8.10 Fermentation

Inputs and outputs of fermentation

8.5 Metabolic pool Catabolism produces molecules that can also be used for anabolism of other compounds
catabolism involves reactions which break down molecules and tend to be exergonic
anabolism involves reactions which synthesize molecules and tend to be endergonic
catabolism drives anabolism due to ATP synthesis

8.5 Metabolic pool

ultimately, all catabolic reactions lead to cell respiration all carbs catabolize to glucose amino acids catabolize to pyruvate, acetyl CoA or something in Krebs cycle glycerol catabolizes to glyceraldehyde and fatty acids catabolize to acetyl CoA
all paths lead to ATP, the stinkin point of this chapter!

Fig. 8.12 The metabolic pool concept

Respiration control

Electron transport chain

Summary of ATP Production

Summary of ATP Production

Glycolysis 2 NADH Acetyl CoA 2 NADH Krebs Cycle 2 GTP 6 NADH 2 FADH2 Total:

2 ATP 6 ATP 6 ATP 2 ATP 18 ATP 4 ATP 38 ATP

The Plan
Glucose Oxidized e-/P+ Reduced NAD ADP + Pi Energy THE POINT NADH e-/P+ Electron Transport Chain Carbon Dioxide + Water O2 e-/P+

ATP