Pro 2

Power System Protective
Relaying-Part Two
Wei-Jen Lee, Ph.D., PE
Professor of Electrical Engineering Dept.
The Univ. of Texas at Arlington
Definition

Quantity in per unit =

Quantity in percent = (Quantity in per unit)*100
Quantity of Value Base
Quantity Actual
Advantages
More meaningful when comparing different
voltage levels
The per unit equivalent impedance of the
transformer remains the same when referred to
either the primary or the secondary side
The per unit impedance of a transformer in a
three-phase system is the same, regardless the
winding connection
The per unit method is independent of voltage
changes and phase shifts through transformers
Advantages
Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of
the equipment in per unit or percent on the base of
its nameplate ratings
The per unit impedance values of various ratings
of equipment lie in a narrow range
General Relations Between
Circuit Quantities

LL
L
o
LN LL
L LL
V
S
I
V V
I V S
3
30 3
3
3
3
|
|
=
Z =
=
Circuit Quantities

Circuit Quantities

| |
|
| |
3
2
3
3
3
2
3
30 3 3
* 30 3
30 3
3
30
3
30
30 3
*
3
30
S
V
S
V
V
I
V
I
V
Z
V
S
Z
V I
I
Connection
S
V
S
V V
I
V
Z
Connection Y
o
LL LL o
LL
L
o
LL
D
LL
D
LL
o
D
LL
o
L
D
o
LL LL
o
LL
L
LN
Y
Z
= Z =
Z
= =
Z
= =
Z
=
A
Z
=
Z
= =
Base Quantity Selections

VA, V, I, and Z are four power quantities
One has to select two base quantities and derive
the other two
Base Conversion

2
) (
2
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
* *
new base
old base
old base
new base
old pu new pu
KV
KV
MVA
MVA
Z Z =
Example One: Base Conversion
A 50-MVA, 34.5:161 kV transformer with 10%
reactance is connected to a power system where
all the other impedance values are on a 100 MVA,
34.5 or 161 kV base. The reactance of the
transformer under new base is:
2 . 0 *
50
100
* 1 . 0
2
) (
2
) (
) (
= =
new base
old base
new pu
KV
KV
Z
Example Two: Base Conversion
A generator and transformer, as shown below, are
to be combined into a single equivalent reactance
on a 100 MVA, 110 kV (high voltage side) base.

Example Two: Base Conversion
The transformer is operated at 3.9 kV tap.
New base voltage at high side is 110 kV.
The base voltage at low side is:
110*3.9/115 = 3.73 kV

514 . 1 364 . 0 15 . 1
364 . 0
73 . 3
9 . 3
*
30
100
* 1 . 0
15 . 1
73 . 3
4
*
25
100
* 25 . 0
) ( ) (
2
2
) (
2
2
) (
= + = + =
= =
= =
new Xfer new gen eq
new Xfer
new gen
Z Z Z
Z
Z
Transformer Polarity

Transformer Polarity
The ANSI/IEEE standard for transformers states
that the high voltage should lead the low voltage
by 30
o
with Y-A or A-Y banks.
Relay Polarity
Relays that sense the direction of current (or
power) flow at a specific location and, thereby,
indicate the direction of the fault, provide a
good example of relay polarity.
A directional-sensing unit requires a reference
quantity that is reasonably constant against
which the current in the protected circuit can
be compared.
Relay Polarity
Definition of maximum torque line and zero
torque line
Solid state units can have adjustments for (1) the
maximum torque angle and (2) the angle limits of
the operating zone
Relay Polarity

Relay Polarity
In Fig. (A), the maximum operating torque or
energy occurs when the current flow from polarity
to non-polarity (I
pq
) leads by 30
o
the voltage drop
from polarity to non-polarity (V
rs
). The minimum
pick up of the directional unit is specified at the
maximum torque.
Higher current will be required when I
pq
deviates
from the maximum torque line.
Relay Polarity
For ground fault protection, the 60
o
unit of Fig.
(B) is used with a 3V
o
reference and the zero unit
of Fig. (C) with a 3I
o
current reference.
The Fig. (C) is also used for power or var
applications.
Relay Polarity

Connection Unit Type Phase A Phase B Phase C Maximum torque
occurs when
30
o
Fig. 3.7C I
a
, V
ac
I
b
, V
ba
I
c
, V
cb
I lags 30
o
60
o
Delta

Fig. 3.7C

I
a
-I
b
, V
ac
I
b
-I
c
, V
ba
I
c
-I
a
, V
cb
I lags 60
o
60
o
Wye Fig. 3.7C

I
a
, -V
c
I
b
, -V
a
I
c
, -V
b
I lags 60
o
90
o
-45
o

Fig. 3.7A
(max. torque: 45
o
)
I
a
, V
bc
I
b
, V
ca
I
c
, V
ab
I lags 45
o
90
o
-60
o

Fig. 3.7A

I
a
, V
bc
I
b
, V
ca
I
c
, V
ab
I lags 60
o
The 90
o
-60
o
Connection for
Phase-Fault Protection

The 90
o
-60
o
Connection for
Phase-Fault Protection

Directional Sensing for Ground
Faults: Voltage Polarization

Faults: Voltage Polarization

Faults: Current Polarization

Symmetrical Components

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
2
1
0
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
I
I
I
a a
a a
I
I
I
c
b
a
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
c
b
a
I
I
I
a a
a a
I
I
I
2
2
2
1
0
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
Zero Sequence Current and Voltage
for Ground Fault Protection

Sequence Networks
Single-Line Diagram
Sequence Networks
Positive Sequence Network
Sequence Networks
Negative Sequence Network
Sequence Networks
Zero Sequence Network
Sequence Network Reduction
Consider faults at bus H for the positive sequence
network of the sample system. The Z
1
is equal to
the parallel of (X
d
+X
TG
+X
1GH
) and (Z
1S
+X
HM
)
Fault Studies for Relay Settings
and Coordination
Three-phase fault studies for applying and setting
phase relays
Single-phase-to-ground fault studies for applying
and setting ground protection relays
Fault Impedance: Faults are seldom solid, but
involve varying amount of resistance.
It is generally ignored in protective relaying and
faults studies for high voltage transmission or sub-
transmission system.
and Coordination
In distribution systems, very large or basically
infinite impedance can exist. High impedance fault
detection relay may be necessary for distribution
system.
For arcing fault, the arc resistance varies a lot.
However, a commonly accepted value for currents
between 70 and 20,000 A has been an arc drop of
440 V per foot, essentially independent of current
magnitude. Therefore,
O =
I
l
Z
arc
440
and Coordination
In low voltage (480 V) switchboard-type
enclosures, typical arc voltages of about 150 V
can be experienced.
Substation and Tower-Footing Impedance is
another highly variable factor. Several technical
papers have been written and computer programs
have been developed in this area with many
variables and assumptions. The general practice is
to neglect these in most fault studies and relay
applications and settings.
and Coordination

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
2
1
0
2
2
2
2
2
1
0
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
I
I
I
a a
a a
I
I
I
I
I
I
a a
a a
I
I
I
c
b
a
c
b
a
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
I
I
I
Z
Z
Z
V
V
V
V
and Coordination
Sequence Interconnections for Three-Phase Faults
and Coordination
Sequence Interconnections for Three-Phase Faults
Three-Phase faults are assumed to be symmetrical.
The positive-sequence network can be used to calculate
the fault current.
Since I
a
, I
b
, and I
c
are balanced, only I
1
appears in the
circuit. If there is fault impedance Z
F
among phases, Z
1

should be changed to Z
1
+ Z
F
. V-( Z
1
+ Z
F
) I
1
=0

or
1
1
Z
V
I I
aF
= =
F
aF
Z Z
V
I I
+
= =
1
1
and Coordination
Sequence Interconnections for Single Phase-to-
Ground Faults
and Coordination
Ground Faults
A phase-a-to-ground fault is represented by
connecting the three sequence networks
together (either with or without fault
impedance).

0 = =
c b
I I
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
a
a
a a
I
I
I I
a a
a a
I
I
I
3
1
0
0
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
2
2
2
1
0
0
3 * I Z V
F a
=
and Coordination
Ground Faults
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
1 2
1 1
1 0
1
1
1
2
1
0
2
1
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
I Z
I Z V
I Z
I
I
I
Z
Z
Z
V
V
V
V
1 1 2 1 0 2 1 0
3 ) ( I Z I Z Z Z V V V V V
F a
= + + = + + =
1 0 2 1
0 2 1
0 2 1
3
) 3 (
I I I I I
Z Z Z Z
V
I I I
aF
F
= + + =
+ + +
= = =
and Coordination
Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase
Faults
- It is convenient to show the fault between phases b and
c with fault impedance of Z
F
.
and Coordination
Faults
c b b F c b a
I I and I Z V V I = = = , , 0
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
b b
b b
b
b
aI I a
I a aI
I
I
a a
a a
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
1
0
0
3
1
0
1
1
1 1 1
3
1
and Coordination
Faults
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
1 2
1 1
1
1
2
1
0
2
1
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
I Z
I Z V
I
I
Z
Z
Z
V
V
V
V
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
2
1
0
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
V
V
V
a a
a a
V
V
V
c
b
a
and Coordination
Faults
2
2
1
2
) ( ) ( V a a V a a V V
c b
+ =
) )( (
2 1
2
V V a a =
2
1
1 2 1
2
3
) ) ( )( (
a a
Z I
Z I
I Z Z V a a
F
F b
= =
+ =
F
F
F b
Z I
a a a a
Z I
Z I I Z Z V
1
2 2
1
1 2 1
) )( (
3
) ) ( ( =

= = +
and Coordination
Faults

Assume Z
1
= Z
2
, then I
1
= V/2Z
1
. Just considering
the magnitude,
1 2
2
1
1 2 1
2
2 1
2 1
2 1
3
3
0
) (
I j I a aI I
I j aI I a I
I I I
Z Z Z
V
I I
cF
bF
aF
F
= + =
= + =
= =
+ +
= =
| 3
1 1
866 . 0 866 . 0
2
3
I
Z
V
Z
V
I I
cF bF
= = = =
and Coordination
Sequence Interconnections for Double Phase-to-
Ground Faults
The connection for this type of fault is similar to the
phase-to-phase fault with the addition of the zero
sequence impedance in parallel with the negative
sequence impedance.
and Coordination
Ground Faults
0
) (
2 1 0
= + + =
+ = =
I I I I
I I Z V V
a
c b F c b
F F c b b
c
b
Z I Z I I V
V V
V a aV V V
aV V a V V
0
2 1
2
2
1 0
2 1
2
0
3 ) ( = + =
=
+ + =
+ + =
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
I Z V
I Z V V
I Z V
I
I
I
Z
Z
Z
V
V
V
V
=
=
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(

and Coordination
Ground Faults
1 0 1
2
0 0
) ( 3 V V V a a V Z I V
F b
= + + = =
F
F
Z Z
I Z V
I
I Z V I Z V V Z I
3
3
0
1 1
0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
+
=
+ = =
) (
0 2 1
2
1 1
2
I I I
Z
I Z V
I
+ =
=
and Coordination
Ground Faults (Solid faults)
0 2
2
1 0
0 2
0
1 2
0 2
0 2
1
1
Z Z
Z
I I
Z Z
Z
I I
Z Z
Z Z
Z
V
I
+
=
+
=
+
+
=
and Coordination
Ground Faults (Line-to-line fault impedance: Z
F

and phase-to-ground fault impedance: Z
FG
)
FG F
F
FG F
FG F
FG F
FG F F F
Z Z Z Z
Z Z
I I
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z
I I
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
V
I
3
)) 2 / ( (
3
) 3 ) 2 / ( (
3
) 3 ) 2 / ( ))( 2 / ( (
)
2
(
0 2
2
1 0
0 2
0
1 2
0 2
0 2
1
1
+ + +
+
=
+ + +
+ +
=
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
=
Example: Fault Calculations on a
Sample System

Sample System
Step One: Transfer all the constants to a common
base
- V
G
:

- V
S
: No change

- Two winding Transformer:

pu X X
G d
2 . 0
80
100
* 16 . 0
2
"
= = =
1375 . 0
80
100
* 11 . 0 = =
TG
X
Sample System
base

- Three winding transformer:

pu X
pu X
pu X
ML
HL
HM
18667 . 0
150
100
* 280 . 0
2400 . 0
150
100
* 360 . 0
03667 . 0
150
100
* 055 . 0
= =
= =
= =
pu X
pu X
pu X
L
M
H
1950 . 0 ) 18667 . 0 2400 . 0 03667 . 0 (
2
1
00833 . 0 ) 18667 . 0 2400 . 0 03667 . 0 (
2
1
0450 . 0 ) 18667 . 0 2400 . 0 03667 . 0 (
2
1
= + + =
= + =
= + =
Sample System
base

- Line Impedance:

pu X X
pu X
Z
base
18147 . 0
6200 . 0
25 . 132
82
25 . 132
10 * 100
10 * 115
2 1
0
6
6 2
= =
= =
O = =
Sample System
Develop sequence network for different fault
conditions (Fault at point G).
Positive & negative sequence network
Sample System
Develop sequence network for different fault
conditions (Fault at point G).
Zero sequence network
Sample System
For the fault at G, the right side impedance
(j0.18147+j0.03667+j0.03=j0.2481) is parallel
with left side impedance (j0.20+j0.1375=j0.3375).
1430 . 0
2481 . 0 3375 . 0
2482 . 0 * 3375 . 0
2 1
j
j j
j j
Z Z =
+
= =
Sample System
The right side network is reduced for a fault at bus
G by first paralleling X
0S
+ Z
H
with Z
L
and then
adding Z
M
and X
0GH
(The equivalent impedance is
equal to j0.6709). Paralleling with the left side
impedance (X
TG
= j0.1375), the zero sequence
impedance X
0
= j0.1141.
Sample System
Three-phase fault at Bus G

The division of current from the left (I
aG
) and the
right (I
aH
) are:
kV at A j pu j
j
I I
aF
115 8 . 3510
115 * 3
000 , 100
993 . 6 993 . 6
143 . 0
1
1
= = = = =
pu I
pu I
aH
aG
030 . 4 993 . 6 * 5763 . 0
963 . 2 993 . 6 * 4237 . 0
= =
= =
Sample System
Single-phase-to-ground fault at Bus G
kV at A pu j I I
pu j
j
I I I
aF
115 4 . 3764 5 . 7 3
5 . 2
) 1141 . 0 143 . 0 143 . 0 (
0 . 1
1
0 2 1
= = =
=
+ +
= = =
Example: Fault Calculations for
Autotransformers
Autotransformers have become very common in
recent years.
Consider a typical autotransformer in a system, as
shown in the figure, and assume that a single-
phase-to-ground fault occurs at the H or 34.5 kV
terminal
Autotransformers

Autotransformers

pu X
pu X
pu X
ML
HL
HM
54 . 0
40
100
* 216 . 0
68 . 0
50
100
* 34 . 0
05333 . 0
150
100
* 08 . 0
= =
= =
= =
pu X
pu X
pu X
H
M
H
58334 . 0 ) 0533 . 0 54 . 0 68 . 0 (
2
1
04334 . 0 ) 68 . 0 54 . 0 0533 . 0 (
2
1
09667 . 0 ) 54 . 0 68 . 0 0533 . 0 (
2
1
= + =
= + =
= + =
Autotransformers
The sequence networks are shown below:
Autotransformers
When the fault happens at Bus H, the equivalent
sequence impedance for the networks are:
Positive & negative sequence network

Zero sequence network
pu X X 04637 . 0
) 08 . 0 0967 . 0 0433 . 0 057 . 0 (
) 08 . 0 ( * ) 0967 . 0 0433 . 0 057 . 0 (
2 1
=
+ +
+
= =
pu X
pu X
left
06527 . 0
28 . 0 085177 . 0
28 . 0 * 085177 . 0
085177 . 0 0967 . 0
) 583 . 0 0433 . 0 032 . 0 (
583 . 0 * ) 0433 . 0 032 . 0 (
0
=
+
=
= +
+
=
Autotransformers
Single-phase-to-ground fault at H:
kV at A pu I I
kV at A I I I
pu I I I
aF
345 29 . 3177 986 . 18 3287 . 6 * 3 3
345 1 . 1059
10 * 345 * 3
10 * 100
* 3287 . 6
3287 . 6
) 06527 . 0 04637 . 0 04637 . 0 (
0 . 1
0
3
6
2 1 0
2 1 0
= = = =
= = = =
=
+ +
= = =
Autotransformers
Fault current distribution
Example: Open-Phase Conductor
A blown fuse or broken conductor that opens one
of the three phases results in a serious unbalance
that has to be detected and resolved as soon as
possible.
The sample system (Assume phase a open at H)
The positive sequence network (X-Y indicates the
fault location)
The negative sequence network (X-Y indicates the
fault location)
The zero sequence network (X-Y indicates the
fault location)
It is necessary to consider the load current in this
case. (This is similar to two-phase-to-ground fault
calculation)
Example: Open-Phase Falling to
Ground on One Side
Same sample system as before.
Assume phase a conductor on the line at bus H
opens and falls to ground on the H side (right side).
Ground on One Side
Same sequence network
Since this is a simultaneous fault (an open phase
fault and a phase-to-ground fault), we can insert
three ideal transformers at H to isolate the open
phase fault and phase-to-ground fault. (Load
current can be ignored)
Ground on One Side

Ground on One Side

Ground on One Side
The other possibility is that the open conductor falls
to ground on the line side. We can use the same
approach as before. However, the load must be
considered in the fault current calculation.

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Power System Protective

Base Quantity Selections

Fault Studies for Relay Settings

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