Evolution of the Earth

Origin and Early Evolution of Earth

Age of universe is ~ 14.5 By, about 10 By older than Earth Early universe had only protons & helium nuclei as condensed particles we are familiar with, rest was elementary particles & radiation First stars formed from hydrogen and helium, the rest of the elements formed in protostars by nucleosynthesis Stars of a certain critical size exploded as supernovae, scattering hydrogen, He & newly formed elements as intergalactic dust. Other stars became black holes, brown dwarfs, etc. Inhomogeneities in dust clouds led to formation of secondary stars, similar to our sun, but now could contain orbiting debris formed from elements in 1st generation stars. Inherited angular momentum caused debris to orbit main condensation center, and eventually gave rise to orbiting planets

Hadean is name given to Eon in which Earth formed by accretion and meteorite bombardment. It was truly hell on earth as constant meteorite bombardment and high interior heat flow combined to keep early Earth surface in nearly constant molten state. Atmosphere of early Earth likely reducing (i.e. no oxygen) and similar to present Jupiter atmosphere (?), mostly: methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2) and helium (He) with some traces of noble gases like neon (Ne)
http://www.carleton.ca/%7Etpatters/teaching/intro/intro.html

Fig. 6.3

Stages in Planetary Evolution

1. Planetesimals small bodies formed from dust and gas eddies 2. Protoplanets 9 or 10 formed from planetesimals 3. Planets formed by combining protoplanets swept up by gravitational attraction.

Broadly, four stages can be identified in the process of planetary formation.

1. The gravitational collapse of a star leads to the formation of a core to the gas cloud and the formation of a huge rotating disc of gas and dust, which develops around the gas core. A star such as Beta Pictoris shows a central core of this type, with a disc of matter rotating around the core. Beta Pictoris is thought to be a young star showing the early stages of planetary formation. The condensation of the gas cloud and the formation of chondrules. Chondrules are small rounded objects found in some meteorites.. The presence of chondrules gives rise to a special class of meteorites known as chondrites. For example, the Allende meteorite is chondrule-rich and contains minerals rich in the elements Ca and Al, and Ti and Al, minerals which are unlike terrestrial minerals. It also include metallic blobs of Os, Re, Zr. The chemistry of these unusual minerals suggest that they are early solar system condensates. The accretion of gas and dust to form small bodies between 1-10 km in diameter. These bodies are known as planetesimals. They form initially from small fragments of solar dust and chondrules by the processes of cohesion (sticking together by weak electrostatic forces) and by gravitational instability. Cohesion forms fragments up to about 1 cm in diameter. Larger bodies form by collisions at low speed which cause the material to stick together by gravitational attraction. Support for this view of the process of accretion comes from a region on the edge of the solar system known as the Kuiper Belt, where it is thought that the accretionary 'mopping up' has failed to take place. More violent and rapid impact accretion. The final stage of accretion has been described as 'runaway accretion'. Planetesimals are swept up into well defined zones around the sun which approximate to the present orbits of the terrestrial planets. The process leads eventually to a small number of large planetary bodies. Evidence for this impacting process can be seen in the early impact craters found on planetary surfaces An explanation of the type given above for the origin of the planets in the solar system is supported by mathematical simulations which show how accretion works by the progressive gathering together of smaller particles into large. It also provides an explanation of the differences between planetary bodies in the solar system and explains the differences between the heavier terrestrial planets close to the sun, and the lighter, more gaseous planets situated at a greater distance.
http://www2.glos.ac.uk/gdn/origins/earth/ch3_2.htm

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Beta Pictoris a solar system in the making?

This new and very detailed image of the famous circumstellar disk around the southern star Beta Pictoris. It shows (in false colours) the scattered light at wavelength 1.25 micron (J band) and is one of the best images of this interesting feature obtained so far. It has a direct bearing on the current search for extra-solar planetary systems, one of the most challenging astronomical activities. While spectroscopic, astrometric and photometric studies may only provide indirect evidence for planets around other stars, coronographic images like this one in principle enable astronomers to detect dusty disks directly. This is very important for our understanding of the physics of planetary formation and evolution. The disk around Beta Pictoris is probably connected with a planetary system. In particular, various independent observations have led to the conclusion that comets are present around this star, and variability of its intensity has been tentatively attributed to the occultation (partial eclipse) by an orbiting planet.

Fig. 6.4

Stages in Formation of Early Earth

. From (A) a homogeneous, low-density protoplanet to (B) a dense, differentiated planet

Fig. 6.5

Cross section through a spinning disk-shaped nebular cloud illustrating formation of planets by condensation of planetesimals. Temperatures refer to conditions at initial condensation.

Orion Nebula, Star Nursery ?

Orion Nebula is part of a large gas and dust cloud located in the Orion Constellation. It is one of the closest stellar nurseries to us at about 1,500 light years. The whole cloud easily spans over several hundred light years. Here you can see recently formed stars as they blink on in the interior of the dust cloud.

This slide shows the interaction between the earths magnetosphere and the solar wind. Early in the Earths formation the solar wind blew the light gases, H an He to the farther reaches of the solar system.

Fig. 6.6

Planet Jupiter showing moons Io (crossing at equator) and Europa.

Fig. 6.7

The earths interior.

1. 2. 3. 4. Crust Mantle Outer core (liquid) Inner core (solid)

Note density discontinuity at coremantle boundary

Divisions of the Earth's interior

Cross section of Earth showing in a rudimentary way the relation of the upper mantle to subduction zones and midocean ridges. Note also the region where basaltic magma is thought to form.

3-D image of the crust

3-D image of the crust beneath the San Francisco Bay area developed from monitoring the paths that earthquake waves pass through it. Colors correspond with different chunks of the Earth's crust that have been pushed together along the San Andreas and Hayward faults. Earthquakes are shown as yellow dots.

The East African Rift Surface Expression of a Mantle Hot Spot

ETOPO 30 DEM Model

Fig. 6.8

Structure of upper 300 km of Earth. The moho (M) was previously taken to be the boundary between the crust and upper mantle. It is basically a seismic anomaly, but it is not as profound as the seismic low-velocity zone. The zones shown here are based on analysis of seismic velocities from earthquakes.

Fig. 6.9

Schematic diagram illustrating Elsassars model for the Earths magnetic field. The solid mantle rotates at a different rate from the liquid outer core, which is molten Fe and Ni sulfides. The magnetic field is important for the evolution of complex life on Earth since it shields organisms from cosmic radiation (the same high-energy particles that form C-14 in the upper atmosphere.

Fig. 6.10

Change in the Earths Heat Flux through Time.

Although the diagram looks complicated, there are only 4 radioactive isotopes that heat the planet and 2 are uranium. The other 2 are Th (thorium) and K40 (potassium 40). Note that the Earth's present-day heat flux is only about 20% of what it was originally.

Differentiation of Chemical Elements in Earth

Present distribution of major elements and U, Th, He and Ar in the Earths atmosphere, crust and in seawater. (Elements listed in order of abundance.

Fig. 6.12a

Zircon grain from the Acasta Gneiss, Slave Province, NW Territories, Canada. The crystal has been etched with acid to highlight the growth zones. These zircons have been dated to 4.03 By.

Fig. 6.12b

The Acasta Gneiss. Great Slave Province, NW Territories, Canada. One of the oldest (4.03 Bya) dated rocks on Earth. This must have been one of the first crustal rocks to form either at Late Hadean or shortly thereafter.

Fig. 6.13

Atmospheric Stratification and Important Types of Radiation and Radiation Shields.

Note the density stratification with regard to the gases (lightest farthest out, heaviest closer to Earth surface). Also note that vertical scale is logarithmic.

Fig. 6.14

Evolution of Earths atmosphere from early Hadean (5 Bya) to present. Note the changes from Stage I to Stage II, particularly the evolution of nitrogen, (N) the virtual disappearance of hydrogen (H) and methane (CH4). The important change from Stage II to Stage III was the rise in oxygen (due to evolution of photosynthetic algae). Note the presence of the noble gases, Ar, Ne, He and Kr. Most likely from the degassing upper mantle which continues to today.

Fig. 6.15

The Global Chemostat. This diagram shows the important flows for two elements, O and C (though not reduced C). Other important elements, such as N, P, S, Na, Ca, and K follow similar cycles. (Chemostat = hold chemistry constant or change slowly). Start analyzing the cycle with the algae (as prime movers) and follow the chain. Algae actually started the chemostat over 4 Bya. This chemostat is one of the hallmarks of a planet with advanced life forms and it probably very rare in the universe.

Fig. 6.16

The global thermostat. Shallow water is heated by the sun to form the Earths most important heat reservoir. The photic zone above the thermocline is the habitat of algae and phytoplankton which from the base of the aquatic food chain. Below the thermocline the water is cooler and less agitated, hence less oxygenated. These waters may even become stagnant and reducing. When they do they constitute the first step in the preservation of organic matter, which eventually leads to gas and oil deposits.