Applying the scientific methods

Landmark of empirical communication study I

Lazarsfeld and Katz: The people’s Choice (1948)
1. Question
Propaganda voting decision?

2. Method:
Big sample, representative
Interview - re-interview - any changes?
Control groups - avoid contamination by interviews

3. Findings:
a. Activate 14%, convert 8%
b. selective attention - high socio-economic status, the already decided
c. source of influence - face-to-face-ties
Propaganda - minimal effect
Magic bullet theory Two step flow theory

wrong confirmed
Landmark of empirical communication study II
Lazarsfeld and Katz Personal Influence (1955)

1. Question: media and personal decision - 4 areas

fashion, buying, movie choice, public affairs
Media powerful?
Single source of influence?

2. Method: Smaller sample. Personal interview

• Findings: two step flow model of influence

local level Opinion leaders influence choice
non-overlapping opinion leaders
4. Political evaluation:
Main source of influence not from central power - media or government
Instead from local sources of diffuse influence

NO concentration of power - plural centres of influence -

Pluralism alive and well in America

 Two Step Flow Model
• Paul Lazarsfeld & Elihu Katz

• Mass media information is

channeled to the "masses"
through opinion leadership. The
people with most access to media,
and having a more literate
understanding of media content,
explain and diffuse the content to
others.

• They pass on their opinions and

interpretations.
TWO-STEP-FLOW -Lazarsfeld
1 Step
Media

Pay attention to

Consumptio
Persons Decisions n
Voting
2 Step Acting
Seek out Buyin
g

Opinion Leaders
 The two step flow theory

• The two step flow theory was first introduced by

Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and Hazel
Gaudet in the People’s Choice,

• a 1948 study focused on the process of decision-

making during Presidential election campaign

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 The two step flow theory

• This theory argued that

• Ideas often flow from the mass media to the
opinion leaders and from them to the less active
sections of the population

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 From the Two-Step Flow Model
to Limited Effects Theory

Paul Lazarsfeld
and
the Two-Step Flow Model of Communication
The Two-Step Flow of
Communication

Lecture Outline
• background;
• Erie County voting study;
• the two-step flow model;
• the decision-making process;
• key factors;
• limited effects model;
• contingency theory.
 The Two-Step Flow Model

Sender Message Receiver Effect

S M R (S/N) R 1
 Decision-Making Process

• Exists on a continuum;
• depends on two factors:
– personal psyche or
disposition;
– the information itself.
Early Adopters Converts

Waverers Crystallizers
Key Factors in Decision-Making
Process

• socio-economic status (class);

• religion;
• gender;
• intra-familial status.
 Limited Effects Model

• Limited set of assumptions;

• interested in specific processes;
• needs to be integrated into larger
theoretical framework;
• is sufficiently empirical to allow for
testing.
 social contacts
• The one who regularly interacts with many
people will have more opportunities to serve
as an opinion leader.
• Index of gregariousness