Vector Calculus

(Differentiation and Integration of Vectors)

No man really becomes a fool until he
stops asking questions.
DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME
Differential Displacement is given by

Differential Area is given by

Differential Volume is given by


Notice from that dl and dS are vectors
whereas dv is a scalar.
If we move from point P to Q (or Q to P),
dl = dy ay, if we move from Q to S (or S
to Q), dl = dy ay + dz az, Similarly, to
move from D to Q would mean that dl =
dxax + dyay + dz az.

x y z
dl dxa dya dza = + +
x y z
dS dydza dxdza dxdya = = =
dv dxdydz =
DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME
Differential Displacement is given by

Differential Area is given by




Differential Volume is given by


Notice from that dl and dS are vectors
whereas dv is a scalar.

z
dl d a d a dza
|
| = + +
DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME
Example
Consider the object shown in Figure
Calculate
(a) The distance Bc
(b) The distance CD
(c) The surface area ABCD
(d) The surface area ABO
(e) The surface area A OFD
(f) The volume ABDCFO
Solution
Line, Surface and Volume Integrals
The line integral is the integral
of the tangential component of A along
curve L.
Given a vector field A and a curve L, the
integral can be defined as,


the line integral of A around L.


If the path of integration is a closed curve
such as abca above equation becomes a
closed contour integral, which is called the
circulation of A around L
L
A dl
}
cos
b
L a
A dl A dl u =
} }
L
A dl
}
Line, Surface and Volume Integrals
Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing the
smooth surface S, the surface integral or the flux of A through
S can be defined as,


where at any point on S, an is the unit normal to S.

For a closed surface (volume) above equation becomes
which is referred to as the net outward flux of A from S.


Closed path defines a open surface and the closed surface defines
a volume. The volume integral of the scalar v over the
volume v can be defined as
cos
n
S S S
A dS A a dS A dS u = = =
} } }
S
A dS =
}
v
v
dv
}
Problem 1
Given that F = x
2
a
x
- xza
y
- y
2
a
z
, calculate the circulation of F
around the (closed) path.
Problem 2
Calculate the circulation of A = cos|a

+ z sin|a
z
, around the
edge L of the wedge defined by 0ss2, 0s|s60, z = 0.
DEL (V) Operator
Definition : The del or nabla is known as differential
vector operator and is defined as



Del has unit of 1/metre.
Del is operated in three ways
(i) Gradient (ii) Divergence (iii) Curl
x y z
a a a
x y z
c c c
V + +
c c c
Gradient of a Scalar, V (= VV)
Gradient of scalar is vector and is defined as




Examples are gradient of temperature, gradient of
potential.
It gives the maximum space rate of change of the scalar.
x y z
V V V
V a a a
x y z
c c c
V + +
c c c
Divergence of a Vector, A (= V.A)
Divergence of a vector is scalar and is defined as



Divergence means the spreading or diverging of a quantity from a point .
It is applicable to vectors only.
The divergence of a vector indicates the net flow of quantities like gas, fluid,
vapour, electric and magnetic flux lines.
It is a measure of the difference between outflow and inflow.
The divergence of a vector is positive if net flow is outward and negative if net
flow is inward.
The quantity is said to be incompressible if the divergence is zero, that is
V.A = 0 ( condition of incompressibility)

.
y
x z
A
A A
V divA
x y z
c
c c
V + +
c c c
Examples and Features of Divergence
Leaking of air from a balloon yields positive divergence.
Filling up air in a balloon yields negative divergence.
Divergence of water and oil is almost zero, hence they are
incompressible.
Divergence of electric flux density is equal to volume charge
density, V.D=
v
.
Divergence of magnetic flux density is equal to zero, V.B=0.
Divergence of gradient of scalar electric potential is equal to
laplacian of scalar V.VV = V
2
V.
CURL of a Vector (=V x A)
Curl of a vector is a vector an is defined by,





It is a measure of a tendency of a vector quantity to
rotate or twist or curl ( The rate of rotation or angular
velocity at a point is the measure of curl.

x y z
a a a
CurlA A
x y z
Ax Ay Az
c c c
= V =
c c c
Del operator in Circular Cylindrical Coordinate
System

Del Operator in Spherical Coordinate System

Example
Determine the gradient of the following
scalar fields:
U = x
2
y + xyz
V = zsin| + z
2
cos
2
| +
2
F = cosu sin| In r + r
2
|
Answer
Divergence Theorem
The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a closed
surface S is obtained from the integral .


Hence divergence of A can be defined as the net outward flow
of flux per unit volume over a closed incremental surface.



Where is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in
which P is located.

A dS
}
0
lim
S
v
A dS
divA A
v
A

= V =
A
}
v A
Divergence Theorem
Physically, the divergence of the vector field A at a given point as a
measure of how much the field diverge or emanate from that point.

The divergence of a vector field can also be viewed as simply the
limit of the field's source strength per unit volume (or source
density).

It is positive at a source point in the field, and negative at a sink
point, or zero where there is neither sink nor source.
Evaluation of V A at point P (x
0
,y
0
,z
0
)
V A
In cylindrical and spherical divergence of A can be defined as follows.







Following are the properties of the divergence of a vector field :
1. It produces a scalar field (because scalar product is involved).
2. The divergence of a scalar V, div V, makes no sense.
3. V(A + B) = VA + VB
4. V(VA) = V VA + A VV
Divergence Theorem
From definition



This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known as the
Gauss theorem.
The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a
vector field A through the closed surface S is the same as the
volume integral of the divergence of A.
Proof of Divergence Theorem
To prove the divergence theorem, subdivide volume v into a
large number of small cells. If the kth cell has volume Av
k
and
is bounded by surface S
k
.



Since the outward flux to one cell is inward to some
neighboring cells, there is cancellation on every interior
surface, so the sum of the surface integrals over S
k
's is the
same as the surface integral over the surface S.


Example
Solution
CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S THEOREM
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose
magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the
area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction
of the area when the area is oriented so as to make the
circulation maximum.



where the area AS is bounded by the curve L and a
n
is the unit
vector normal to the surface AS and is determined using the
right-hand rule.

Curl in different coordinate systems
Properties of a Curl
The curl provides the maximum value of the circulation of the field per unit
area (or circulation density) and indicates the direction along which this
maximum value occurs.
The curl of a vector field A at a point P may be regarded as a measure of the
circulation or how much the field curls around P.
Stokes Theorem
Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed)
path L is equal lo the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S
bounded by L, provided that A and V x A are continuous on S.
Proof of Stokes Theorem
Similar to that of the divergence theorem.
The surface S is subdivided into a large number of cells.
If the kth cell has surface area AS
k
and is bounded by path L
k
.
There is cancellation on every interior path, so the sum of the line integrals
around L
k
's is the same as the line integral around the bounding curve L.
Example
If A = cos|a

+ sin|a
|
, evaluate around the path
shown in Figure. Confirm this using Stokes's theorem.
A dl
}
Solution
Solution
Solution