Solutions

Definition
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of molecules, ions or atoms of two or more different substances.

Components of a Solution
Solute

the substance being dissolved. The solute is usually present in smaller amounts. the medium into which solutes are dissolved. The solvent is usually present in greater amounts.

Solvent

Classification of Solutions
According to Final State of Mixture According to the Amount of Solute Dissolved (Solubility)

According to Final State of Mixture

Solid Solution Liquid Solution Gaseous Solution

According Solubility
Unsaturated Solution

a solution containing less amount of solute than the solvent can dissolve.

According Solubility
Saturated Solution

a solution containing the amount of solute necessary for the existence of equilibrium between dissolved and undissolved solute.

According Solubility
Supersaturated Solution

a solution containing a greater amount of solute than the solvent can dissolve at a certain temperature.

Note
If the ratio of the solute to solvent is high, the solution is called a concentrated solution. If the ratio of the solute to solvent is low, the solution is called a dilute solution.

Why do substances dissolve?

There are intermolecular forces of attraction involved in forming a solution.

solute-solute molecule attraction solvent-solvent molecule attraction solute-solvent molecule attraction

Why do substances dissolve?

If the third molecule attraction is greater than the two, then the solute will certainly dissolve.

Solubility
Describes the amount of one substance (solute) that will dissolve in a specified amount of another substance (solvent) under certain conditions of temperature and pressure.

Solubility
Example
36.0 grams of NaCl is soluble in 100 grams of water at 20 0C. (The solubility of NaCl in water is 36.0g/100g H2O at 20 0C.)

Solubility
Very soluble Moderately soluble Slightly soluble / sparingly soluble Insoluble Miscible Immiscible

These terms does not accurately express how much solute is dissolve in solvent.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Nature of Solute and Solvent

LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE Polar or ionic solute will be dissolved in a polar solvent Non-polar solute will be dissolved in a nonpolar solvent.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Particle Size

A solid can be dissolve only at the surface that is in contact with the solvent. Because the surface-to-volume ratio increases as the size decreases, smaller crystals dissolve faster than larger ones.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Temperature

Generally for solids in liquids, the higher the temperature the higher the solubility. For gases in liquids, the higher the temperature the lower the solubility.

Solubility

1 T

Factors Affecting Solubility

Pressure

For gases in liquids, the higher the pressure, the higher the solubility.

Solubility P

METHODS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATIONS

WEIGHT PERCENTAGE VOLUME PERCENTAGE MOLE PERCENTAGE MOLE FRACTION MOLARITY MOLALITY PPM, PPB, PPT

WEIGHT PERCENTAGE
The parts by weight of solute per 100 parts by weight of solution The expression of concentration as a weight percentage can be separated by

% WA

WA = W A + WB

100

PPM
Parts per million
mass solute ppm = ------------------- x 1,000,000 mass solution Use to measure concentrations of air and water contaminants, drugs in the body and pesticide residues.

VOLUME PERCENTAGE
The parts by volume of solute per 100 parts by volume of solution. The volume percentage can be expressed as

% VA =

VA VA + VB

100

MOLE PERCENTAGE
The parts by mole of solute per 100 parts by mole of solution. The mole percentage can be expressed as

% nA

nA = 100 n A + nB

MOLE FRACTION
The proportion or ratio of the number of moles of a component to the total number of moles in the solution. The concentration can be expressed as

XA

nA = n A + nB

A given solution contains 100 g of salt NaCl, and 100 g of water. What are the mole fractions contributed by each component, x, of that solution?
100 g NaCl= 100 g 58.45 g/mole = 1.71 moles of NaCl 900 g H2O= 900 g 18.02 g/mole = 49.94 moles of NaCl TOTAL = 51.65 moles Mole of fraction of NaCl = nNaCl = 1.171/51.65 = 0.0331 Mole fraction of H2O = n H2O = 49.94/51.65 = 0.9669

Given that nKOH = 0.100 for a water solution of potassium hydroxide. How many gram of KOH are there in 25.0 g of the solution? Solution: Since nKOH + nH20 = 1.000 then nH20 = 1.00-0.100 = 0.900 That is, moles KOH/ moles H20 = 0.100 x 56.1 = 5.61 g KOH 0.900 x 18.0 = 16.2 g H20 Let 25.0 - X = g of H20 in 25.0 g of solution

And 5.61 KOH = 16.2 g H20

xg KOH (25.0 x) g H20

or 218 x = 1403 and x = 6.44 h KOH in 25 g of solution

MOLARITY
The number of moles of solute per liter of solution. The concentration can be expressed as

M =

moles of solute liter of solution

Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 8.82 g of HCl in 100 mL of solution 100 mL solution = 100 mL solution 8.82 g HCl xg HCl x= 88.2 g HCl per lilter of solution since 1.00 mole HCl = 36.465 g then 88.2 36.445 g/mole = 2.42 moles per liter That is, the above solution is 2.42 M with respect to HCl

MOLALITY
The number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent The concentration can be expressed as

moles of solute m = ki log ram of solvent

Sample Problem
Prof. X and Ms. Grey prepared a solution of NaOH. Prof. X measured 500 g of NaOH, dissolved it in water and then diluted to one liter. Ms. Grey found out that the resulting solution made by Prof. X has a density of 1.35 g/mL. Express the concentration of NaOH as (a) percentage by weight, (b) molarity, (c) mole fraction, (d) molality,

Sample Problem
A 270-mL solution of phosphoric acid contains 130.1 grams of hydrogen phosphate in 202.9 grams of water. Calculate the solutions:

Density xA Molarity Molality Percent by weight

Sample Problem
A solution is labeled 10 grams of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) per 100 mL of water. If the density of ethyl alcohol is 0.79 g/mL, what is the percent by volume of ethyl alcohol in the solution?

Sample Problem
A hand sanitizer is labeled 62% ethyl alcohol by volume. What is the volume of the sanitizer if it contains 75 mL of ethyl alcohol?

Sample Problem
How many grams of calcium hydroxide are contained in a 2.2 liters of a 3molar aqueous solution?

Sample Problem
How many grams of barium chloride are contained in a 50.6 mL of a 2-molar aqueous solution?

DILUTION
The process of lowering the concentration of a solution by adding additional solvent with the amount of solute kept constant.

DILUTION
Before dilution Amt of solute = Amt of solvent < Amt of solution < After dilution Amt of solute Amt of solvent Amt of solution

DILUTION
The equation used for the calculation is

CBVB

CAVA

where CB and CA represents the concentration before and after dilution. The symbol VB is the volume before dilution and VA is the volume after dilution

Dilution Calculations
An analyst is required to produce 400 mL of 0.06 M KCl soln. The stock solution is 0.6 M. How many mL of water must be added to the stock solution to produce the required concentration?

Titration
Titration is one of the most important procedures used in chemical analysis. In a normal analysis, a solution containing an unknown quantity of the substance to be analyzed is placed in the receiving flask.

Titration
Accurately measured volumes of a solution of known concentration are then added from the buret. The complete reaction of the unknown solution and the standard solution is indicated by the change in the color of the indicator, indicating the end point of titration.

Titration
The process of determining the concentration of a solution by allowing it to react completely with a solution of known concentration. At equivalent point

MAVA = MBVB

Titration Calculations
How many milliliters (mL) of a 0.610 M NaOH solution are needed to completely neutralize 30 mL of a 0.246 M H2SO4 solution?

Colligative Properties
A colligative property of a system is a characteristic that is influenced by the number of particles present in the system but is independent of the properties of the particles themselves.

Colligative Properties
Vapor Pressure Lowering Boiling Point Elevation Freezing Point Depression Osmotic Pressure

Boiling-Point Elevation
The boiling point of a liquid is described as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the external atmospheric pressure. Alteration in either atmospheric pressure or vapor pressure of the liquid will cause a common change in its boiling point.

Boiling-Point Elevation
If a non-electrolyte is decomposed in the liquid , the vapor pressure of the liquid is decreased , provided the solute is a nonvolatile component.

Boiling-Point Elevation
Dilute solutions of nonvolatile solutes. The boiling -point elevation of the solvent is directly proportional to the molecular concentration of the solute.

Boiling-Point Elevation

Tb m Tb = Kbm
where Tb is the number of degrees the boiling point is raised, m is the concentration in molality , and Kb is the molal boiling point elevation of the solvent

Boiling-Point Elevation
A student in Chemistry laboratory measured 55.0g of a compound (molecular weight, 92) and dissolved it in 100.0 g of water. What is the expected normal boiling point of the solution?

Freezing-Point Depression
Any solute component , volatile or nonvolatile, decreases the freezing point of a solution. The depression of the vapor pressure of the liquid solvent brings down the temperature of the solid-liquid equilibrium.

Freezing-Point Depression
Dilute solutions of non-volatile solutes. The freezing-point depression of the solvent is directly proportional to the molecular concentration of the solute

Freezing-Point Depression

where Tf is the freezing point depression, Kf is the molal freezing point constant, and m is the concentration of the solute in molality

Tf m Tf = Kfm

Freezing-Point Depression
Ethylene glycol, is used as an antifreeze in automobile radiators. Determine the freezing point of 30 wt. % solution of ethylene glycol , C2H4(OH)2, supposing that ethylene glycol and water form an ideal solution.

Osmotic Pressure
The most delicate colligative property is osmotic pressure. Membranes of certain materials allow the flow of water molecules or ions of solutes decomposed in the water. Examples of include many materials and artificial membranes.

Osmotic Pressure
Apparently, there is a transfer of water molecules from the pure solvent through the membrane into the solution. This process is called osmosis. The osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be applied to prevent the process of osmosis.

Osmotic Pressure
The osmotic pressure is proportional to the solute concentration in molarity.

=CRT
where R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature and C is the solute concentration in molarity.

Osmotic Pressure
A very dilute solution 0.0020M table salt in water , is separated by an osmotic membrane. Determine the osmotic pressure in torr developed at 25C.

Osmotic Pressure